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Ixodes

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Ixodes
Temporal range: Cenomanian–present
Ixodes ricinus, engorged
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Arthropoda
Subphylum: Chelicerata
Class: Arachnida
Order: Ixodida
Family: Ixodidae
Genus: Ixodes
Latreille, 1795 [1]
Type species
Acarus ricinus
Species

274 extant, 2 extinct, see text.

Ixodes hexagonus
Ixodes pacificus
Ixodes ricinus
Ixodes scapularis
Ixodes uriae

Ixodes is a genus of hard-bodied ticks (family Ixodidae). It includes important disease vectors of animals and humans (tick-borne disease), and some species (notably Ixodes holocyclus) inject toxins that can cause paralysis. Some ticks in this genus may transmit the pathogenic bacterium Borrelia burgdorferi[3] responsible for causing Lyme disease. Additional organisms that may be transmitted by Ixodes are parasites from the genus Babesia, which cause babesiosis, and bacteria from the related genus Anaplasma, which cause anaplasmosis.

Ecology and distribution

[edit]

Ixodes species have a cosmopolitan distribution, being found across all major biogeographic realms, including Antarctica, being found on seabirds and in penguin rookeries. The genus parasitises a wide range of mammal, bird and reptile hosts across the world, although rodents and passerine birds are the most common hosts, especially in the Americas.[4]

Description and systematics

[edit]

Ixodes is the sole representative of the Prostriata clade of the Ixodidae. Prostriate ticks are distinguished from the Metastriata with reference to the position of the anal groove. In Ixodes species, the groove loops anterior to the anus, whereas in Ambloymma, for example, the groove is positioned posterior to the anus. Ixodes species are small to medium-sized ticks, with a usually pyriform (pear-shaped) or ovate body profile. Mouthparts are anterior in both sexes, but usually long and slender in females, and short in males. Males have sclerotised adanal plates. Ixodes species are eyeless.[5]

Ixodidae
Ixodidae cladogram after Barker et al., (2024)[6]

Taxonomy

[edit]

Ixodes contains 274 species.[7] Classification, recognition and phylogenetic resolution of the Ixodes subgenera is ongoing. As many as 24 subgenera have been recognised by different authors. All are included here for completeness.[8][9][10]

Subgenera

[edit]
  • Afrixodes Morel, 1966[11]
  • Alloixodes Černý, 1969[12]
  • Amerixodes Morel, 1998[13]
  • Australixodes Barker & Barker et al., 2023[14]
  • Ceratixodes Neumann, 1902[15]
  • Coxixodes Schulze, 1941[14]
  • Endopalpiger Schulze, 1935[16]
  • Eschatocephalus Frauenfeld, 1853[17]
  • Exopalpiger Schulze, 1935[18]
  • Filippoviella Apanaskevich, Greiman, Fedorov, Ahmed & Barker[19]
  • Haemixodes Kohls & Clifford, 1967[20]
  • Indixodes Morel, 1998[13][21]
  • Ixodes Latreille, 1795[8]
  • Ixodiopsis Filippova (1957)[22][23]
  • Lepidixodes Schulze, 1935[24]
  • Monoindex Emelyanova & Kozlovskaya, 1968[25][26]
  • Multidentatus Neumann, 1904[27]
  • Partipalpiger Hoogstraal et al., 1973[28]
  • Pholeoixodes Schulze, 1942[29]
  • Pomerantzevella Feider, 1965[30][31]
  • Scaphixodes Schulze, 1941[32]
  • Sternalixodes Schulze, 1935[8]
  • Trichotoixodes Reznik, 1961[33]
  • Xiphixodes Schulze, 1941[34]

Species

[edit]

Fossil Species

[edit]
Fossil species Ixodes antiquorum from Burmese amber (~99 Ma)

Three fossil species of Ixodes are known from amber deposits ranging from the Cretaceous to the Eocene:

Notes

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  1. ^ Sometimes listed as a synonym of I. ovatus
  2. ^ Ixodes tertiarius is a nomen dubium, and should be excluded from the fossil record

Additional Readings

[edit]

Refer to the following external links for recent changes to Ixodes taxonomy:

References

[edit]
  1. ^ Valeria Castilho Onofrio; Darci Moraes Barros-Battesti; Marcelo Bahia Labruna; João Luiz Horácio Faccini (2009). "Diagnoses of and illustrated key to the species of Ixodes Latreille, 1795 (Acari: Ixodidae) from Brazil". Systematic Parasitology. 72 (2): 143–157. doi:10.1007/s11230-008-9169-z. PMID 19115087. S2CID 19483827.
  2. ^ Deane Philip Furman; Edmond C. Loomis (1984). "Genus Ixodes Latreille". The Ticks of California (Acari: Ixodida). Bulletin of the California Insect Survey. Vol. 25. University of California Press. pp. 47–77. ISBN 978-0-520-09685-1.
  3. ^ Fisher, Bruce; Harvey, Richard P.; Champe, Pamela C. (2007). Lippincott's Illustrated Reviews: Microbiology (Lippincott's Illustrated Reviews Series). Hagerstown, MD: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. p. 334. ISBN 978-0-7817-8215-9.
  4. ^ Estrada-Peña, Agustín; Guglielmone, Alberto A.; Nava, Santiago (2023-02-21). "Worldwide host associations of the tick genus Ixodes suggest relationships based on environmental sharing rather than on co-phylogenetic events". Parasites & Vectors. 16 (1): 75. doi:10.1186/s13071-022-05641-9. ISSN 1756-3305. PMID 36810195.
  5. ^ Barker, Stephen C.; Barker, Dayana (2023-03-08). "Ticks of Australasia: 125 species of ticks in and around Australia". Zootaxa. 5253 (1): 1–670. doi:10.11646/zootaxa.5253.1.1. ISSN 1175-5334. PMID 37044756.
  6. ^ Barker, Stephen C.; Kelava, Samuel; Mans, Ben J.; Apanaskevich, Dmitry A.; Seeman, Owen D.; Gofton, Alexander; Shao, Renfu; Teo, Ernest J. M.; Evasco, Kimberley L.; Soennichsen, Kari F.; Barker, Dayana; Nakao, Ryo (2024-02-12). "The first cryptic genus of Ixodida, Cryptocroton n. gen. for Amblyomma papuanum Hirst, 1914: a tick of North Queensland, Australia, and Papua New Guinea". Zootaxa. 5410 (1): 91–111. doi:10.11646/zootaxa.5410.1.5. ISSN 1175-5334.
  7. ^ Guglielmone, Alberto A.; Petney, Trevor N.; Robbins, Richard G. (2020-11-05). "Ixodidae (Acari: Ixodoidea): descriptions and redescriptions of all known species from 1758 to December 31, 2019". Zootaxa. 4871 (1): 1–322. doi:10.11646/zootaxa.4871.1.1. ISSN 1175-5334.
  8. ^ a b c Barker, Dayana; Seeman, Owen D.; Barker, Stephen C. (2021-09-20). "The development of tick taxonomy and systematics in Australia and Papua New Guinea through the works of five late 20th century contributors and with comments on the place of Australasia in the study of the phylogeny and evolution of the ticks". Systematic and Applied Acarology: 1793–1832. doi:10.11158/saa.26.10.1. ISSN 2056-6069.
  9. ^ Barker, Dayana; Kelava, Samuel; Seeman, Owen D.; Shao, Renfu; Seaniger, James R.; Jones, Malcolm K.; Apanaskevich, Maria A.; Nakao, Ryo; Apanaskevich, Dmitry A.; Barker, Stephen C. (2022-08-01). "Rediscovery of Ixodes confusus in Australia with the first description of the male from Australia, a redescription of the female and the mitochondrial (mt) genomes of five species of Ixodes". International Journal for Parasitology: Parasites and Wildlife. 18: 1–11. Bibcode:2022IJPPW..18....1B. doi:10.1016/j.ijppaw.2022.03.006. ISSN 2213-2244. PMC 8971345. PMID 35371916.
  10. ^ Barker, Stephen C.; Kelava, Samuael; Heath, Allen C. G.; Seeman, Owen D.; Apanaskevich, Dmitry A.; Mans, Ben J.; Shao, Renfu; Gofton, Alexander W.; Teo, Ernest J. M.; Byrne, Andrew F.; Ito, Takuya; Tan, Craig J.; Barker, Dayana; Nakao, Ryo (2023-08-10). "A new subgenus, Australixodes n. subgen. (Acari: Ixodidae), for the kiwi tick, Ixodes anatis Chilton, 1904, and validation of the subgenus Coxixodes Schulze, 1941 with a phylogeny of 16 of the 22 subgenera of Ixodes Latreille, 1795 from entire mitochondrial genome sequences". Zootaxa. 5325 (4): 529–540. doi:10.11646/zootaxa.5325.4.4. ISSN 1175-5334. PMID 38220895.
  11. ^ Morel, P. C. (1966). Sur quelques larves d'Ixodes Latreille, 1796, d'Afrique (Acariens, Ixodoidea). Acarologia, 8, 208-221.
  12. ^ Cerny, V. (1969). Institute of Parasitology, Czechoslovak Academy of Sciences, Prague. Folia Parasitologica (PRAHA), 16, 279-284.
  13. ^ a b Camicas, J. L., Hervy, J. P., Adam, F., & Morel, P. C. (1998). The ticks of the world (Acarida, Ixodida): nomenclature, described stages, hosts, distribution.
  14. ^ a b Barker, Stephen C.; Kelava, Samuael; Heath, Allen C. G.; Seeman, Owen D.; Apanaskevich, Dmitry A.; Mans, Ben J.; Shao, Renfu; Gofton, Alexander W.; Teo, Ernest J. M.; Byrne, Andrew F.; Ito, Takuya; Tan, Craig J.; Barker, Dayana; Nakao, Ryo (2023-08-10). "A new subgenus, Australixodes n. subgen. (Acari: Ixodidae), for the kiwi tick, Ixodes anatis Chilton, 1904, and validation of the subgenus Coxixodes Schulze, 1941 with a phylogeny of 16 of the 22 subgenera of Ixodes Latreille, 1795 from entire mitochondrial genome sequences". Zootaxa. 5325 (4): 529–540. doi:10.11646/zootaxa.5325.4.4. ISSN 1175-5334.
  15. ^ Neumann, L.G., 1902. Mém. Soc. Zool. France, 15:125–130
  16. ^ Schulze, P., 1935. Zur vergleichenden anatomie der zecken. (Das sternale, die mundwerkzeuge, analfurchen und analbeschilderung, ihre bedeutung, ursprünglichkeit und luxurieren.). Zeitschrift für Morphologie und ¨Okologie der Tiere 30, 1–40
  17. ^ Frauenfeld, G. (1853). Eschatocephalus gracilipes. Verhandlungen des KK.
  18. ^ Filippova, N. A. (2010-09-01). "Uncommon zoogeographical connections in the subgenus Exopalpiger Schultze of the genus Ixodes Latreille (Acari, Ixodidae)". Entomological Review. 90 (6): 793–797. Bibcode:2010EntRv..90..793F. doi:10.1134/S0013873810060151. ISSN 1555-6689.
  19. ^ Apanaskevich, Dmitry A.; Greiman, Stephen E.; Fedorov, Denis S.; Ahmed, Rokeya; Barker, Stephen C. (2024-04-22). "A new subgenus of hard ticks, Filippoviella n. subgen. (Acari: Ixodidae) comprising Ixodes trianguliceps Birula, 1895 and I. ghilarovi Filippova & Panova, 1988, parasites of small mammals in Europe and Asia". Zootaxa. 5443 (2): 224–236. doi:10.11646/zootaxa.5443.2.5. ISSN 1175-5334.
  20. ^ IRMNG: Haemixodes Kohls & Clifford 1967
  21. ^ Apanaskevich, Dmitry A.; Greiman, Stephen E.; Fedorov, Denis S.; Ahmed, Rokeya; Barker, Stephen C. (2024-04-22). "A new subgenus of hard ticks, Filippoviella n. subgen. (Acari: Ixodidae) comprising Ixodes trianguliceps Birula, 1895 and I. ghilarovi Filippova & Panova, 1988, parasites of small mammals in Europe and Asia". Zootaxa. 5443 (2): 224–236. doi:10.11646/zootaxa.5443.2.5. ISSN 1175-5334.
  22. ^ Filippova, IN. A. 1957. Ixodes stromi, new species of tick and its systematic position in Ixodinae. Zool. Zh.36: 864-869 (in Russian, with English summary [English translation: NAMRU-3-T69]).
  23. ^ Robbins, Richard G.; Keirans, James E. (1987-05-01). "Ixodes (Ixodiopsis) woodi (Acari: Ixodidae): Description of the Larva and Redescription of the Nymph". Journal of Medical Entomology. 24 (3): 310–314. doi:10.1093/jmedent/24.3.310. ISSN 1938-2928. PMID 3585925.
  24. ^ Clifford, Carleton M.; Sonenshine, Daniel E.; Keirans, James E.; Kohls, Glen M. (1973-05-15). "Systematics of the Subfamily Ixodinae (Acarina: Ixodidae). 1. the Subgenera of Ixodes". Annals of the Entomological Society of America. 66 (3): 489–500. doi:10.1093/aesa/66.3.489. ISSN 1938-2901.
  25. ^ Filippova NA. 1977. Ixodid Ticks of the Subfamily Ixodinae. Leningrad: Izd. Nauka, 393 pp. (In Russian)
  26. ^ Emelyanova, N. D., & Kozlovskaya, O. L. (1968). A NEW SPECIES AND SUBGENUS OF THE GENUS IXODES LATR. (PARASITIFORMES, IXODIDAE) FROM THE FAR EAST OF U.S.S.R.
  27. ^ Neumann, L.G. (1904) Notes sur les ixodidés. II. Archives de Parasitologie, 8, 444–464.
  28. ^ Hoogstraal, Harry; Clifford, Carleton M.; Saito, Yutaka; Keirans, James E. (1973-04-25). "Ixodes (Partipalpiger) Ovatus Neumann, Subgen. Nov.: Identity, Hosts, Ecology, and Distribution (Ixodoidea: Ixodidae)1". Journal of Medical Entomology. 10 (2): 157–164. doi:10.1093/jmedent/10.2.157. ISSN 1938-2928. PMID 4732945.
  29. ^ Krumpálová, Zuzana; Mangová, Barbara; Purgatová, Slávka; Didyk, Yuliya M.; Kazimírová, Mária (2023-04-21). "Molecular characterisation of three Ixodes (Pholeoixodes) species (Ixodida, Ixodidae) and the first record of Ixodes (Pholeoixodes) kaiseri from Slovakia". ZooKeys (1158): 147–162. Bibcode:2023ZooK.1158..147K. doi:10.3897/zookeys.1158.101936. ISSN 1313-2970. PMC 10193145. PMID 37215694.
  30. ^ M., Clifford, Carleton; E., Sonenshine, Daniel; E., Keirans, James; M., Kohls, Glen (1973-05-15). "Systematics of the Subfamily Ixodinae (Acarina: Ixodidae). 1. the Subgenera of Ixodes". Annals of the Entomological Society of America. 66 (3). doi:10.1093/ae (inactive 20 October 2025). ISSN 0013-8746. Archived from the original on 2021-03-08.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of October 2025 (link) CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  31. ^ Feider, Z. 1965. Acaromorpha Superfamilia Ixodoidea. In Fauna Republicii Populare Romane, Arachnida vol. 4:1-406
  32. ^ Schulze, P. (1941). "Das Geruchsorgan Der Zecken. Untersuchungen Über Die Abwandlungen Eines Sinnesorgans Und Seine Stammesgeschichtliche Bedeutung". Zeitschrift für Morphologie und Ökologie der Tiere. 37 (3): 491–564. doi:10.1007/BF00408327. ISSN 0372-9389. JSTOR 43261795.
  33. ^ Reznik, P.A., 1961. Contribution to study of immature stages of the tick family Ixodidae. Communication six. Description of Ixodes frontalis Panz. larvae and nymphs and Ixodes redikorzevi Ol. larvae. Tr. Nauchno-Issled. Protivochumnogo Inst. Kavk. Zakavk. 5, 276–286
  34. ^ Schulze, P. (1941). "Das Geruchsorgan Der Zecken. Untersuchungen Über Die Abwandlungen Eines Sinnesorgans Und Seine Stammesgeschichtliche Bedeutung". Zeitschrift für Morphologie und Ökologie der Tiere. 37 (3): 491–564. doi:10.1007/BF00408327. ISSN 0372-9389. JSTOR 43261795.
  35. ^ Apanaskevich, Dmitry A. (2024-07-02). "Description of a new species of Ixodes Latreille, 1795 (Acari: Ixodidae), parasite of rodents (Rodentia: Muridae) in Malaysia and Vietnam". Systematic Parasitology. 101 (4) 48. doi:10.1007/s11230-024-10172-1. ISSN 1573-5192.
  36. ^ a b c d e Apanaskevich, Dmitry A.; Schenk, John J. (2020). "Description of five new species of Ixodes Latreille, 1795 (Acari: Ixodidae) and redescription of I. luxuriosus Schulze, 1935, I. steini Schulze, 1935 and I. zaglossi Kohls, 1960, parasites of marsupials, rodents and echidnas in New Guinea Island". Systematic Parasitology. 97 (3): 223–266. doi:10.1007/s11230-020-09909-5. PMID 32328810. S2CID 216085891.
  37. ^ Aftisse, Lydia; Merabet, Samira; Keskin, Adem; Apanaskevich, Dmitry A. (2024-11-17). "Description of a new species of Ixodes Latreille, 1795 (Acari: Ixodidae), a parasite of rodents (Rodentia: Muridae) in Algeria". Systematic Parasitology. 102 (1): 5. doi:10.1007/s11230-024-10197-6. ISSN 1573-5192. PMID 39551907.
  38. ^ Englert, Mackenzie C.; Goodman, Steven M.; Apanaskevich, Dmitry A. (2023-12-01). "Description of a new species of Ixodes Latreille, 1795 (Acari: Ixodidae), parasite of shrew tenrecs (Afrotheria: Tenrecidae) and rodents (Rodentia: Muridae) on Madagascar". Systematic Parasitology. 100 (6): 745–750. doi:10.1007/s11230-023-10122-3. ISSN 1573-5192.
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  40. ^ Barker, Dayana (2019). "Ixodes barkeri n. sp. (Acari: Ixodidae) from the short-beaked echidna, Tachyglossus aculeatus, with a revised key to the male Ixodes of Australia, and list of the subgenera and species of Ixodes known to occur in Australia". Zootaxa. 4658 (2): 331–342. doi:10.11646/zootaxa.4658.2.7. PMID 31716747. S2CID 202031409.
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  42. ^ Barker, Dayana; Kelava, Samuel; Seeman, Owen D.; Shao, Renfu; Seaniger, James R.; Jones, Malcolm K.; Apanaskevich, Maria A.; Nakao, Ryo; Apanaskevich, Dmitry A.; Barker, Stephen C. (2022-08-01). "Rediscovery of Ixodes confusus in Australia with the first description of the male from Australia, a redescription of the female and the mitochondrial (mt) genomes of five species of Ixodes". International Journal for Parasitology: Parasites and Wildlife. 18: 1–11. Bibcode:2022IJPPW..18....1B. doi:10.1016/j.ijppaw.2022.03.006. ISSN 2213-2244. PMC 8971345. PMID 35371916.
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  46. ^ Kwak, M. L.; Madden, C.; Wicker, L. (2018). "Ixodes heathi n. sp. (Acari: Ixodidae), a co-endangered tick from the critically endangered mountain pygmy possum (Burramys parvus), with notes on its biology and conservation". Experimental and Applied Acarology. 76 (3): 413–419. doi:10.1007/s10493-018-0312-5. PMID 30302626. S2CID 52945250. A new species of co-endangered tick, Ixodes heathi n. sp., is described from specimens of the nymph collected on the critically endangered mountain pygmy possum (Burramys parvus Broom) from the alpine region of Victoria, Australia. Its biology is discussed along with strategies for its conservation.
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  52. ^ Kitaoka, Shigeo; Suzuki, Hiroshi (1983). "Studies on the Parasite Fauna of Thailand: 5. Parasitic ticks on mammals and description of Ixodes siamensis sp. n. and Rhipicephalus tetracornus sp. n. (Acarina: Ixodidae)". Tropical Medicine. 25 (4): 205–219. hdl:10069/4366. Ixodes siamensis sp. n. is the second species of the subgenus Paltipalpiger.
  53. ^ Guglielmone, Alberto A.; Robbins, Richard G.; Apanaskevich, Dmitry A.; Petney, Trevor N.; Estrada-Peña, Agustín; Horak, Ivan G. (2009). "Comments on controversial tick (Acari: Ixodida) species names and species described or resurrected from 2003 to 2008". Experimental and Applied Acarology. 48 (4): 311–327. doi:10.1007/s10493-009-9246-2. hdl:2263/13757. PMID 19169832. S2CID 29053875. We consider the following 40 names valid…Ixodes siamensis Kitaoka and Suzuki, 1983.
  54. ^ Bottero, Maria N. Saracho; Beati, Lorenza; Venzal, José M.; Guardia, Leonor; Thompson, Carolina S.; Mangold, Atilio J.; Guglielmone, Alberto A.; Nava, Santiago (2021-01-01). "Ixodes silvanus n. sp. (Acari: Ixodidae), a new member of the subgenus Trichotoixodes Reznik, 1961 from northwestern Argentina". Ticks and Tick-borne Diseases. 12 (1) 101572. doi:10.1016/j.ttbdis.2020.101572. ISSN 1877-959X. PMID 33068841.
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  56. ^ Apanaskevich, Dmitry A.; Bunn, Kennedy G. (2025-07-19). "Description of a new species of Ixodes Latreille, 1795 (Acari: Ixodidae), parasite of the Mexican spiny pocket mouse, Heteromys irroratus Gray (Rodentia: Heteromyidae) in Mexico". Systematic Parasitology. 102 (4): 46. doi:10.1007/s11230-025-10245-9. ISSN 1573-5192. PMID 40682685.
  57. ^ Chitimia-Dobler, Lidia; Mans, Ben J.; Handschuh, Stephan; Dunlop, Jason A. (2022). "A remarkable assemblage of ticks from mid-Cretaceous Burmese amber". Parasitology. 149 (6): 820–830. doi:10.1017/S0031182022000269. ISSN 0031-1820. PMID 35241194.
  58. ^ Dunlop, Jason A.; Apanaskevich, Dmitry A.; Lehmann, Jens; Hoffmann, René; Fusseis, Florian; Ehlke, Moritz; Zachow, Stefan; Xiao, Xianghui (2016-10-10). "Microtomography of the Baltic amber tick Ixodes succineus reveals affinities with the modern Asian disease vector Ixodes ovatus". BMC Evolutionary Biology. 16 (1): 203. Bibcode:2016BMCEE..16..203D. doi:10.1186/s12862-016-0777-y. ISSN 1471-2148. PMC 5057450. PMID 27724841.
  59. ^ Weidner H. Eine Zecke, Ixodes succineus sp. n., im baltischen Bernstein. Veröffent Übersee-Mus Bremen. 1964;3:143–51
  60. ^ Dunlop, J.A. (2011-12-20). "The fate and status of the supposed fossil tick Ixodes tertiarius Scudder, 1885". Acarologia. 51 (4): 399–404. doi:10.1051/acarologia/20112021. ISSN 0044-586X.
  61. ^ Scudder S. H. 1885 — 3. Classe. Arachnoidea. Spinnen. Skorpione. — In: Zittel, K. A. (Ed.) Handbuch der Palaeontologie. I. Abtheilung. Palaeozoologie 2. München & Leipzig: R. Oldenbourg. p. 732-746.
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  • Media related to Ixodes at Wikimedia Commons
  • Data related to Ixodes at Wikispecies
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