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State of Israel
מְדִינַת יִשְׂרָאֵל  (Hebrew)
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دَوْلَة إِسْرَائِيل  (Arabic)
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ఇజ్రాయెల్ దేశం  (Telugu)
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Anthem: Hatikvah
(English: "The Hope")
Location of Israel (in green) on the globe.
Territories controlled by Israel and recognized by the UN are in dark green
Territories controlled by Israel but not recognized by the UN are in light green
Capital
and largest city
Jerusalem[fn 1]
31°47′N 35°13′E / 31.783°N 35.217°E / 31.783; 35.217
Official languagesHebrew
Recognized languagesArabic[fn 2]
Ethnic groups
(2019)
Religion
(2019)
Demonym(s)Israeli
GovernmentUnitary parliamentary republic
• President
Isaac Herzog
Benjamin Netanyahu
Amir Ohana
Yitzhak Amit
LegislatureKnesset
Independence from the British Empire
14 May 1948
11 May 1949
1958–2018
Area
• Total
22,072 km2 (8,522 sq mi)[a] (150th)
• Water (%)
2.1
Population
• 2017 estimate
10,130,280[14] (99th)
• 2008 census
7,412,200[15]
• Density
459/km2 (1,188.8/sq mi) (35th)
GDP (PPP)2020[16] estimate
• Total
Increase $372.314 billion (51st)
• Per capita
Increase $40,336 (34th)
GDP (nominal)2020[16] estimate
• Total
Increase $410.501 billion (31st)
• Per capita
Increase $44,474 (19th)
Gini (2018)34.8[17]
medium · 48th
HDI (2019)Increase 0.919[18]
very high · 19th
CurrencyNew shekel (₪) (ILS)
Time zoneUTC+2 (IST)
• Summer (DST)
UTC+3 (IDT)
Date format
  • יי-חח-שששש (AM)
  • dd-mm-yyyy (CE)
Driving sideright
Calling code+972
ISO 3166 codeIL
Internet TLD.il
Website
https://www.gov.il/en
  1. ^ 20,770 km2 is Israel within the Green Line. 22,072 km2 includes the annexed Golan Heights (c. 1,200 km2 (460 sq mi)) and East Jerusalem (c. 64 km2 (25 sq mi)).

Israel (Hebrew: יִשְׂרָאֵל), officially the State of Israel (Hebrew: מְדִינַת יִשְׂרָאֵל), is a country in southwestern Asia on the eastern side of the Mediterranean Sea. Its capital city is Jerusalem.[19]

Israel's population is around 9.8 million people. This includes around 7 million Jews. Most of Israel's other citizens (1.2 million) are Arabs and include Muslims, Christians, and Druze.[20][21][22] Israel is approximately 470 kilometers (290 miles) long and 135 kilometers (85 miles) wide at its widest point, making it a relatively small country in terms of land area.[23]

There is a long history of conflict between Israel and Palestine. Many human rights organizations classify Israel as an apartheid state due to its policies against Palestinians in the West Bank and Gaza.[24]

Israel has a relatively high standard of living and life expectancy. Almost all of its people can read and write.

According to the The Economist's Democracy Index, Israel is the only democratic republic in the Middle East.

Israel's history begins thousands of years ago, in ancient times. Two major world religions, Judaism and Christianity, began here. The Jewish nation and religion first grew in this region.

Jews and Christians call Israel the Holy Land because many events described in the Bible happened there, and because some commandments of Jewish law can be accomplished only on its soil.[25]

Before the Common Era (BCE)

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Canaanites and other Semitic peoples first populated the area around four thousand years ago. According to the Bible, the first Jewish patriarch, Abraham, lived at this time.

Around 1400 BCE, another Semitic people called the Hebrews settled in Canaan under the leadership of Moses and Joshua. They were named the “Children of Israel” or “Israelites”, and were divided into 12 tribes.

A few centuries later, the Hebrews made Saul their leader. The next king, David, began the Kingdom of Israel in about 1000 BCE and made Jerusalem its capital city. His son, Solomon, built the first Temple for the worship of their God.

Solomon died around 928 BCE, and his kingdom broke into two countries. The northern country kept the name Israel. The southern country, called Judah, kept Jerusalem as its capital.

The Assyrians conquered the Kingdom of Israel in 732 BCE. Then, in 586 BCE, the Babylonians conquered the Kingdom of Judah and destroyed Solomon's Temple. In response, many Jews returned from Babylonia to rebuild their country and their temple.

First the Persians, then the Greeks, and then the Romans ruled the Land of Israel.

During the early Common Era (CE)

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Early in the first century, Roman soldiers defeated the Jews in modern-day Israel. In 70 CE, they destroyed Jerusalem and the Second Jewish Temple there. Again in 135 CE, the Romans defeated the Jews and killed or took many of them to other places.

The number of Jews living in Israel became much smaller. Many were forced to live in other countries. This spreading of Jewish communities outside of Israel is called the Diaspora.

Many of the Jews who remained moved to the Galilee. Jewish teachers wrote important Jewish books, called the Mishnah and part of the Talmud there, in the 2nd to 4th centuries CE.

The Roman and then the Byzantine Empires ruled until 635 CE, when Arabs conquered the region. Different Arab rulers, and for a while Crusaders, ruled the land. In 1516, the Ottoman Empire conquered the land and ruled the region until the 20th century.

The name "Palestine" is the English version of the Romans' name for the area, which was Syria Palaestina. This name in turn was derived from that of the Philistines, one of ancient Israel's historical enemies.[26][27]

During the modern Common Era

[change | change source]

Since the Diaspora, there have been many attempts to make a new homeland for the Jewish people. Starting in 1860, the Zionist movement advocated for the creation of a Jewish nation in Israel. Jews from all over the world began to come to the area and settled in desert zones. These zones were first governed by the Ottoman Empire, and later by the British Empire.

Map of the original 1947 UN Partition Plan for Mandatory Palestine. The territory was to be divided between an Arab and a Jewish state, with Jerusalem becoming an internationally-administered space.

On 14 May 1948, British control over Palestine ended. Jews living in Palestine (under the leadership of David Ben-Gurion) declared independence for a new Jewish state.[28] On the next day, the armies of four Arab countries—Egypt, Syria, Transjordan, and Iraq—invaded the territory of Israel and the former Mandatory Palestine, starting the 1948 Arab–Israeli War.[29] Military units from Yemen, Morocco, Saudi Arabia, and Sudan would also join the war.[30][31] The purpose of the invasion was to prevent the establishment of the Jewish state.[32][33][34][35] The Arab League stated the invasion was to restore order and prevent further bloodshed.[36] After a year of fighting, a ceasefire was declared and temporary borders, known as the Green Line, were established.[37] Jordan annexed what became known as the West Bank, including East Jerusalem, and Egypt occupied the Gaza Strip.[38][39]

The UN estimated that more than 700,000 Palestinians had left during the war, with many of them forced to leave. This became known as the Nakba ("catastrophe").[40][41] At the same time, over 900,000 Jews left the Arab states, with many of them also being forced to leave.[42]

In 1956, Israel, Britain, and France invaded the Sinai Peninsula, in an attempt to overthrow Egyptian president Gamal Abdel Nasser, and to retake the Suez Canal (for Britain and France). However, strong diplomatic pressure from the United States and the Soviet Union forced them to withdraw.

A map of the military advances and the territory gained by Israel during the Six-Day War

In May 1967, Egypt sent its army near the border with Israel, expelled UN peacekeepers that had been in the Sinai Peninsula since 1957, and blocked Israel's access to the Red Sea.[43][44][45] Other Arab states also prepared their armies.[46] Israel reiterated that these actions were a casus belli, and fearing another all-out invasion by their Arab neighbors, launched a pre-emptive strike against Egypt on 5 June. Shortly after, Jordan, Syria, and Iraq attacked Israel. In the following Six-Day War, Israel captured the West Bank from Jordan, the Gaza Strip and Sinai Peninsula from Egypt, and the Golan Heights from Syria.[47] Israeli forces expelled ~300,000 Palestinians from the Gaza Strip and the West Bank. Jerusalem's boundaries were increased, incorporating East Jerusalem. The 1949 Green Line became the administrative boundary between Israel and the occupied territories.[48]

Following the 1967 war and the "Three Nos" resolution of the Arab League, Israel faced attacks from the Egyptians in the Sinai Peninsula during the 1967–1970 War of Attrition, and from Palestinian groups targeting Israelis in their occupied territories, globally, and in Israel itself. The most prominent among the Palestinian and Arab militant groups was the Palestine Liberation Organisation (PLO), established in 1964, which initially committed itself to "armed struggle as the only way to liberate the homeland".[49] In the late 1960s and early 1970s, Palestinian groups launched attacks[50][51] against Israeli and Jewish targets around the world,[52] including a massacre of Israeli athletes at the 1972 Summer Olympics in Munich. The Israeli government responded with an assassination campaign against the organisers of the massacre, a bombing and a raid on the PLO headquarters in Lebanon.

On 6 October 1973, the Egyptian and Syrian armies launched a surprise attack against Israeli forces in the Sinai Peninsula and Golan Heights, opening the Yom Kippur War. The war ended on 25 October, with Israel repelling Egyptian and Syrian forces but suffering great losses.[53]

In 1978, Egyptian President Anwar Sadat and Israeli Prime Minister Menachem Begin signed the Camp David Accords. The next year, in 1979, they signed the Egypt–Israel peace treaty.[54] In return, Israel withdrew from the Sinai Peninsula and agreed to enter negotiations over autonomy for Palestinians in the West Bank and the Gaza Strip.[54] This was the first peace treaty between Israel and an Arab state. 15 years later, in 1994, the Israel–Jordan peace treaty was signed, making Jordan the second Arab country to normalize relations with Israel.[55]

In early 1979, the Iranian Revolution saw the overthrow of Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, the Shah of Iran, and the replacement of Iran's government with a hostile, extremist Islamism regime, which became an enemy of both Israel and the the West, beginning the Iran–Israel proxy conflict.

Since the 1980s, Israel has waged several wars in Lebanon to fight against the PLO and later, Hezbollah, beginning with the 1982 Lebanon War, and mostly recently, the Israel–Hezbollah conflict (2023–present). However, there a number of atrocities committed against the civilian population, with the most notable incident of this being the Sabra and Shatila massacre.[56] In 2000, Israel withdrew from Lebanon. Subsequently, Israel fought two more wars against Hezbollah, one in in 2006, and another one since 2023.

In 2005, Israel withdrew from the Gaza Strip.[57] However, 2 years later, in 2007, the Hamas militant organization seized control of the territory from the Palestinian Fatah party, in a violent coup. Beginning in 2008, Hamas and Israel fought five separate wars, in 2008, 2012, 2024, 2021, and mostly recently, in 2023.

By the 2010s, increasing regional cooperation between Israel and Arab League countries had been established, with the countries drawn increasingly closer by shared security interests, and their concerns with Iran. In September 2020, this culminated in the signing of the Abraham Accords, with the United Arab Emirates, Bahrain, and Morocco all normalizing ties with Israel, marking the first peace agreement between Israel and an Arab state since 1994. Sudan also signed onto the Accords, but had not yet ratified it by 2025. The Israeli security situation shifted from the traditional Arab–Israeli conflict towards the Iran–Israel proxy conflict, and direct confrontation with Iran during the Syrian Civil War.

On 7 October 2023, over 6,800 Hamas terrorists invaded Israel and launched the October 7 attacks, massacring 1,915 Israelis (including 815 civilians), and taking 251 hostages, which started the 2023 Gaza War.[58][59][60] This war quickly expanded into a regional conflict, including a war with Hezbollah in Lebanon, a conflict involving attacks by the Houthis on Israel and on international shipping in the Red Sea, attacks by Iranian militia groups on US military bases in Iraq, Syria, and Jordan, and two rounds of attacks between Iran and Israel in April 2024 and October 2024. Hezbollah's defeat in Lebanon led to a massive offensive led by Hay'at Tahrir al-Sham (HTS) in Syria, restarting the Syrian Civil War after a 4-year pause, and leading to the Fall of the Assad regime on 8 December 2024.[61][62] In June 2025, the regional conflict culminated in a full-scale war between Israel and Iran, with Israel opening the war with large-scale surprise attacks on Iran's military leadership, top nuclear scientists, and nuclear program.[63][64][65] which later became known as the Twelve-Day War.[66][67] The war saw the entry of the United States on 22 June 2025, with a fleet of 14 B-2 bombers destroying 3 fortified nuclear sites in central Iran, in a massive airstrike.[68][69]

Geography

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View of the Galilee from Mount Meron
Haifa Bay from Mount Carmel
View of Haifa from Mount Carmel

Israel is a small country, but it has mountains, deserts, shores, valleys and plains.

The countries of Lebanon and Syria are to the north of Israel; Jordan is on the east; and Egypt is to the southwest. Israel also occupies 60% of the Palestinian West Bank.

Jerusalem is the biggest city in Israel. It is also Israel's official capital city. However, most countries do not recognize this, because they believe Jerusalem should be split up or be under international control. Tel Aviv, Haifa, Beersheba and Rishon LeZion are also large cities.

Variations

[change | change source]

Israel's geography varies from place to place.

In the west, Israel's long coastline meets the Mediterranean Sea. A coastal plain runs alongside this coastline.

To the north, Israel has a mountainous region called the Galilee. On the eastern side of the Galilee, there is a low area called a depression that includes the Hula Valley and the Sea of Galilee.

To the south, there is the Negev Desert: a barren area of flat plains, mountains, and craters. Israel's southern-most city is Eilat, which is located on the Gulf of Aqaba (a part of the Red Sea).

In the center of the country, there is a range of mountains that runs from north to south. The Jordan River also runs north to south, starting in the Sea of Galilee in the north and emptying into the Dead Sea in the south. The land next to the Dead Sea -426 meters below sea level: the lowest in the world.[70]

The climate is hot and rainless in the summers, with high humidity in lower places like the coastal plain. It is cool and rainy in the winters, rarely going below freezing temperatures. Rain falls mostly in the north, and mostly in the winter (between the months of November and April). Snow falls at higher elevations. While much of Israel has a Mediterranean climate, certain regions, such as the Golan Heights and Jerusalem, experience snowfall during the winter months.[71]

To make it possible for crops to grow in the south, Israel built a very big irrigation system to bring water to the area from the north.[70]

Government

[change | change source]

National government

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Satellite image of Israel (2003)

A parliamentary democracy

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Israel is a parliamentary democracy. All Israeli citizens who are 18 years or older have the right to vote. The Israeli parliament is called the Knesset.

The Knesset has 120 members. Each member is elected for no more than four years at a time. The Knesset makes laws, helps decide national policy, and approves budgets and taxes. The current Knesset is the country's 25th, sworn in on November 15, 2022.

Israel has no written constitution. Instead, the "Basic Laws" made by the Knesset say how the government must work and give civil rights to the citizens.

Voters do not vote for individual candidates in Knesset elections. Instead, they vote for a party. Before the election, each party prepares a list of its candidates. The list might include a single candidate or over a hundred. Voters can see each party's list and decide which party they want to vote for.

In an election, each party wins a certain percentage of the votes. This percentage decides how many representatives, or seats, the party gets in the Knesset. For example, if a party list gets 33 percent of the vote, it gets 40 Knesset seats.

The Prime Minister

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See the main article: Prime Minister of Israel

The head of Israel's government is the Prime Minister. They are usually the leader of the party that has the most seats in the Knesset. The prime minister must keep the support of a majority of Knesset members in order to stay in office.

The prime minister appoints ministers to the cabinet, which The Knesset approves. The ministers are responsible for subjects such as education, defense, and social welfare. The Prime Minister is the head of the cabinet; they decide what will be discussed at meetings, and they make the final decisions.

Benjamin Netanyahu has been the Israeli Prime Minister since December 29, 2022. The current government is called the Sixth Netanyahu Government because it was the sixth time Netanyahu has been elected.

The President

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See the main article: President of Israel

The President is the head of state. The Knesset elects the president for seven years.

Most of the president's duties are ceremonial: they can sign laws and treaties approved by the Knesset, appoint judges, and choose members of some public organizations. They also accept the documents from ambassadors and foreign diplomats bring when they are appointed.

Isaac Herzog has been the President of Israel since July 2021.

Politics

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Israel has many political parties, with a large variety of opinions. In the elections of 2020, 20 different parties won seats in the Knesset.

The parties belong to several main groups. The biggest groups are the Zionist parties. These include the conservative liberals (such as HaLikud[72]); social democrats (like HaAvoda, the Labor Party); and religious Zionists. There are also smaller religious Orthodox Jewish parties; special-interest parties; and Israeli Arab parties.

Usually, a single political party does not win enough seats in the Knesset by itself to have a majority. If this happens, one of the bigger parties asks for support from the other parties (including the religious ones) to form a coalition government. This gives these small parties a lot of power despite their size.

Likud vs. Labor

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The Likud supports free market policies and does not think government should be involved much with the economy. It also believes strongly in protecting Israel's security. It wants Israel to make fewer concessions (to give less away) while negotiating with the Palestinians and the Arab states.

The Labor Party supports government control of the economy, but also believes in a limited amount of free enterprise. It is willing to make more concessions (to give more away) in order to reach an agreement in the peace process.

When it gained its independence in 1948, Israel was a poor country that produced very little agriculture or industry. But Israel's economy has grown tremendously since 1948. The nation now enjoys a very high standard of living, despite having few natural resources and a limited fresh water supply.

Many immigrants came to Israel in the years immediately after independence. Many of these immigrants were skilled laborers and professionals who greatly aided the nation's economic development.

Service industries

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Many of Israel's service industry workers are employed by the government or by businesses owned by the government. Government workers provide many of the services needed by Israel's large immigrant population, such as housing, education, and job training.

Tourism is one of the country's important sources of income. Tourists visit many archaeological, historical, and religious sites; museums; nature reserves; and beach resorts in Israel.[73]

Tourists support many of Israel's service industries, especially trade, restaurants, and hotels. Approximately 4 million tourists visited Israel in 2018.[74]

Manufacturing

[change | change source]

Israeli factories produce such goods as:

Tel Aviv and Haifa are Israel's major manufacturing centers. Government-owned plants make equipment for Israel's large armed forces.

The cutting of imported diamonds is a major industry. Israel is also the world's largest exporter of drones.[75]

Agriculture

[change | change source]
Harvesting date in Israel

Israel produces most of the food it needs to feed its people, except for grain. Exporting agricultural products provides enough income to import needed foods. Israel's agricultural products include citrus and other fruits; eggs; grain; poultry; and vegetables.

The government develops, helps finance, and controls agricultural activity, including fishing and forestry.

Most Israeli farmers use modern agricultural methods. Machines now do much of the work that people used to do. Water drawn from the Sea of Galilee irrigates much of the land in Israel.

Most Israeli farms are organized as moshavim or kibbutzim. Israel also has some private farms.

Israel's biggest source of minerals is the Dead Sea, the world's saltiest body of water. Bromine, magnesium, potash and table salt are all extracted from the sea. The most important of these is potash, used mainly in fertilizers.

In the Negev Desert, there are mines for phosphates, copper, clay, and gypsum.

Solar field in Kibbutz Elifaz, Israel

Israel has few energy sources. It has no coal deposits or hydroelectric power resources, and only small amounts of crude oil and natural gas. As a result, Israel depends on imported crude oil for gasoline and diesel for transportation, and coal producing electricity for its energy needs.

Solar energy – energy from the sun – is used widely to heat water for houses. Israel is developing other ways to use solar energy to power houses and factories.

In 2008, Israel began investing in building electric cars and stations to charge them. There may also be large natural gas fields in the Mediterranean Sea that Israel could develop.

International trade

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In 2006, Israeli exports grew by 11% to just over $29 billion. The hi-tech sector accounted for $14 billion of this: a 20% increase from the previous year.

Because it has few natural resources, Israel imports more goods than it exports. The country's main imports include chemicals, computer equipment, grain, iron and steel, military equipment, petroleum products, rough diamonds, and textiles.

Israel's main exports are chemical products, citrus fruits, clothing, electronic equipment, fertilizers, polished diamonds, military equipment, and processed foods. The nation's main trading partners include the Benelux countries (Belgium, the Netherlands, and Luxembourg); Germany; Italy; Switzerland; the United Kingdom; and the United States.

Transportation

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Reception hall at the Ben Gurion Airport

Israel has a well-developed transportation system. Most middle-class Israeli families either own a car or have one that an employer provides. Paved roads reach almost all parts of the country. Public transportation, both in cities and between them, is provided primarily by bus.

Ben-Gurion Airport is Israel's main international airport. It is near Tel Aviv. Smaller airports are located at Haifa and at Eilat. El Al, Israel's international airline, flies regularly to the United States, Europe, and parts of Asia.

Israel has three major deepwater ports: Haifa, Ashdod, and Eilat.

Communications

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Israel's communication system is one of the best in the Middle East. Israel has about 30 daily newspapers, about half of which are in Hebrew. The rest are in Arabic, Russian, Yiddish, or one of several foreign languages. The Israel Broadcasting Authority, a public corporation set up by the government, runs the television and nonmilitary radio stations.

[change | change source]
  1. ↑ Disputed. Recognition by other UN member states: Australia (West Jerusalem),[1] Russia (West Jerusalem),[2] the Czech Republic (West Jerusalem),[3] Honduras,[4] Guatemala,[5] Nauru,[6] and the United States.[7] In September 2020 it was reported that Serbia would be moving its embassy from Tel Aviv to Jerusalem.[8][9]
  2. ↑ Arabic previously had been an official language of the State of Israel.[10] In 2018 its classification was changed to a 'special status in the state' with its use by state institutions to be set in law.[11][12][13]

References

[change | change source]
  1. ↑ "Australia recognises Tel Aviv as Israeli capital". BBC News. 15 December 2018. Retrieved 14 August 2020.
  2. ↑ "Foreign Ministry statement regarding Palestinian-Israeli settlement". www.mid.ru. 6 April 2017.
  3. ↑ "Czech Republic announces it recognizes West Jerusalem as Israel's capital". Jerusalem Post. 6 December 2017. Retrieved 6 December 2017. The Czech Republic currently, before the peace between Israel and Palestine is signed, recognizes Tel Aviv to be the capital of Israel in the borders of the demarcation line from 1967." The Ministry also said that it would only consider relocating its embassy based on "results of negotiations.
  4. ↑ "Honduras recognizes Tel Aviv as Israel's capital". The Times of Israel. 29 August 2019.
  5. ↑ "Guatemala se suma a EEUU y también trasladará su embajada en Israel a Jerusalén" [Guatemala joins US, will also move embassy to Jerusalem]. Infobae (in Spanish). 24 December 2017. Guatemala's embassy was located in Jerusalem until the 1980s, when it was moved to Tel Aviv.
  6. ↑ "Nauru recognizes Tel Aviv as capital of Israel". Israel National News. 29 August 2019.
  7. ↑ "Trump Recognizes Tel Aviv as Israel's Capital and Orders U.S. Embassy to Move". The New York Times. 6 December 2017. Retrieved 6 December 2017.
  8. ↑ Frot, Mathilde (4 September 2020). "Kosovo to normalise relations with Israel". The Jewish Chronicle. Retrieved 4 September 2020.
  9. ↑ "Kosovo and Serbia hand Israel diplomatic boon after US-brokered deal". The Guardian. 4 September 2020. Retrieved 4 September 2020.
  10. ↑ "Arabic in Israel: an official language and a cultural bridge". Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs. 18 December 2016. Retrieved 8 August 2018.
  11. ↑ "Israel Passes 'National Home' Law, Drawing Ire of Arabs". The New York Times. 19 July 2018.
  12. ↑ Lubell, Maayan (19 July 2018). "Israel adopts divisive Jewish nation-state law". Reuters.
  13. ↑ "Press Releases from the Knesset". Knesset website. 19 July 2018. The Arabic language has a special status in the state; Regulating the use of Arabic in state institutions or by them will be set in law.
  14. ↑ "Home page". Israel Central Bureau of Statistics. Retrieved 20 February 2017.
  15. ↑ Population Census 2008 (PDF) (Report). Israel Central Bureau of Statistics. 2008. Retrieved 27 December 2016.
  16. 1 2 "World Economic Outlook Database, October 2019". International Monetary Fund. Retrieved 23 March 2020.
  17. ↑ "Income inequality". data.oecd.org. OECD. Archived from the original on 30 June 2020. Retrieved 29 June 2020.
  18. ↑ Nations, United (15 December 2020). Human Development Report 2020 The Next Frontier: Human Development and the Anthropocene (PDF). United Nations Development Programme. pp. 343–346. ISBN 978-92-1-126442-5. Retrieved 16 December 2020.
  19. ↑ Israel, U. S. Mission (2020-12-07). "Statement by Former President Trump on Jerusalem". U.S. Embassy in Israel. Retrieved 2024-06-09.
  20. ↑ "הודעות לתקשורת". www1.cbs.gov.il (in Hebrew). 2014. Archived from the original on December 30, 2013. Retrieved January 31, 2014.
  21. ↑ An additional 4.7 million people live under Israel's occupation of Palestine (2.9 million in West Bank and 1.8 million in Gaza Strip), but are neither citizens of Israel, nor citizens of any country that Israel recognizes
  22. ↑ Palestinian Central Bureau of Statistics
  23. ↑ "How Big is Israel?". Shop Israel. Retrieved 2025-02-05.
  24. ↑ "Israel's apartheid against Palestinians: a cruel system of domination and a crime against humanity". Amnesty International. 2022-02-01. Retrieved 2025-07-04.
  25. ↑ Pitkowski, Michael. "MITZVOT HA-TELUYOT BA'ARETZ" (PDF). The Ziegler School of Rabbinic Studies.
  26. ↑ Magness 2012, p. 260: "To further punish the Jews, Hadrian instituted bans restricting or prohibiting some Jewish practices, such as circumcision and sabbath observance. For the first time, Jews living under Roman rule were subject to persecution under the law for practicing their religion. Finally, to obliterate the memory of this troublesome people, Hadrian changed the name of the province from Judea to Syria-Palaestina, reviving the name of the ancient kingdom of Philistia."
  27. ↑ Feldman 1996, p. 553: "Herodotus in the fifth century B.C.E. mentions Palestine; he refers only to the coastal area, so called because it had been inhabited by the Philistines; or he is speaking loosely, since the only part of the area that he had visited was apparently along the coast. ... That the official term for this region is Judaea may be seen from military diplomas and other inscriptions, as well as from coins, prior to the time of Hadrian. It is so designated in the official letter of the Emperor. ... Coins of Hadrian issued before the Bar Kochba rebellion in 132 C.E. refer to Judaea; within a few years after the rebellion the name of Judaea was officially changed to Palestine, the aim being to obliterate the Jewish character of the land, with the name of the nearest tribe being applied to the entire area. Yet, even after the name was officially changed, some inscriptions, as well as such literary figures as Galen and Celsus in the second century, Dio Cassius and Origen in the third century, and Eusebius and Jerome in the fourth century, still refer to Judaea."
  28. ↑ Clifford, Clark, "Counsel to the President: A Memoir", 1991, p. 20.
  29. ↑ Ben-Sasson 1985, p. 1058.
  30. ↑ Morris 2008, p. 205.
  31. ↑ Rabinovich, Itamar; Reinharz, Jehuda (2007). Israel in the Middle East: Documents and Readings on Society, Politics, and Foreign Relations, Pre-1948 to the Present. Brandeis. p. 74. ISBN 978-0-87451-962-4.
  32. ↑ Morris 2008, p. 396: "The immediate trigger of the 1948 War was the November 1947 UN partition resolution. The Zionist movement, except for its fringes, accepted the proposal."
  33. ↑ Matthews, John: Israel-Palestine land division Archived 5 October 2023 at the Wayback Machine
  34. ↑ David Tal (2004). War in Palestine, 1948: Israeli and Arab Strategy and Diplomacy. Routledge. p. 469. ISBN 978-1-135-77513-1. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 1 December 2018. some of the Arab armies invaded Palestine in order to prevent the establishment of a Jewish state, Transjordan...
  35. ↑ Morris 2008, p. 187: "A week before the armies marched, Azzam told Kirkbride: "It does not matter how many [Jews] there are. We will sweep them into the sea." ... Ahmed Shukeiry, one of Haj Amin al-Husseini's aides (and, later, the founding chairman of the Palestine Liberation Organization), simply described the aim as "the elimination of the Jewish state." ... al-Quwwatli told his people: "Our army has entered ... we shall win and we shall eradicate Zionism""
  36. ↑ "PDF copy of Cablegram from the Secretary-General of the League of Arab States to the Secretary-General of the United Nations: S/745: 15 May 1948". un.org. 9 September 2002. Archived from the original on 12 November 2020. Retrieved 15 October 2024.
  37. ↑ Karsh, Efraim (2002). The Arab–Israeli conflict: The Palestine War 1948. Osprey Publishing. ISBN 978-1-84176-372-9.
  38. ↑ Morris, Benny (2004). The Birth of the Palestinian Refugee Problem Revisited. Cambridge University Press. p. 602. ISBN 978-0-521-00967-6.
  39. ↑ "עיצוב יחסי יהודים – ערבים בעשור הראשון". lib.cet.ac.il. Archived from the original on 8 October 2022. Retrieved 2 September 2021.
  40. ↑ "UN marks 75 years since displacement of 700,000 Palestinians | UN News". news.un.org. 2023-05-15. Retrieved 2023-09-10.
  41. ↑ "The Roots of Zionist Terrorism". Institute for Palestine Studies. Retrieved 2025-07-04.
  42. ↑ Beker, A. (2005). "The Forgotten Narrative: Jewish Refugees From Arab Countries". Jewish Political Studies Review. 17 (3/4): 3–19. JSTOR 25834637.
  43. ↑ Gat, Moshe (2003). Britain and the Conflict in the Middle East, 1964–1967: The Coming of the Six-Day War. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 202. ISBN 978-0-275-97514-2. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 4 October 2020.
  44. ↑ John Quigley, The Six-Day War and Israeli Self-Defense: Questioning the Legal Basis for Preventive War, Cambridge University Press, 2013, p. 32.
  45. ↑ Samir A. Mutawi (2002). Jordan in the 1967 War. Cambridge University Press. p. 93. ISBN 978-0-521-52858-0. Archived from the original on 31 October 2023. Retrieved 17 September 2021. Although Eshkol denounced the Egyptians, his response to this development was a model of moderation. His speech on 21 May demanded that Nasser withdraw his forces from Sinai but made no mention of the removal of UNEF from the Straits nor of what Israel would do if they were closed to Israeli shipping. The next day, Nasser announced to an astonished world that henceforth the Straits were, indeed, closed to all Israeli ships
  46. ↑ Segev 2007, p. 289.
  47. ↑ Smith 2006, p. 126. "Nasser, the Egyptian president, decided to mass troops in the Sinai ... casus belli by Israel."
  48. ↑ Shlay & Rosen 2010, pp. 362–363.
  49. ↑ Bennet, James (13 March 2005). "The Interregnum". The New York Times Magazine. Archived from the original on 16 April 2009. Retrieved 11 February 2010.
  50. ↑ Silke, Andrew (2004). Research on Terrorism: Trends, Achievements and Failures. Routledge. p. 149 (256 pp.). ISBN 978-0-7146-8273-0. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 8 March 2010.
  51. ↑ Gilbert, Martin (2002). The Routledge Atlas of the Arab–Israeli Conflict: The Complete History of the Struggle and the Efforts to Resolve It. Routledge. p. 82. ISBN 978-0-415-28116-4. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 8 March 2010.
  52. ↑ Andrews, Edmund; Kifner, John (27 January 2008). "George Habash, Palestinian Terrorism Tactician, Dies at 82". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 13 March 2013. Retrieved 29 March 2012.
  53. ↑ "1973: Arab states attack Israeli forces". On This Day. BBC News. 6 October 1973. Archived from the original on 14 July 2012. Retrieved 15 July 2007.
  54. 1 2 Bregman 2002, pp. 186–187.
  55. ↑ Harkavy & Neuman 2001, p. 270. "Even though Jordan in 1994 became the second country, after Egypt to sign a peace treaty with Israel ..."
  56. ↑ al-Shaikh, Zakaria (1984-10-01). "Sabra and Shatila 1982: Resisting the Massacre". Journal of Palestine Studies. 14 (1): 57–90. doi:10.2307/2537057. ISSN 0377-919X.
  57. ↑ "Israel's disengagement from Gaza (2005) | Withdrawal, Map, & Hamas | Britannica". britannica.com. Retrieved 2024-05-12.
  58. ↑ "Biden Energy Adviser to Discuss Lebanon Border Issues on Israel Trip". Asharq Al-Awsat. November 20, 2023. Archived from the original on 28 November 2023. Retrieved November 20, 2023. In the months before the Oct. 7 attack on Israel by Palestinian Hamas militants who run the Gaza Strip, Hochstein said the United States was exploring the possibility of resolving the longstanding border dispute between Lebanon and Israel.
  59. ↑ "Hamas fighter says he is 'proud' of the October 7 attack on Israel and vows to keep fighting". Sky News. November 10, 2023. Archived from the original on 9 December 2023. Retrieved November 20, 2023.
  60. ↑ Jason Burke (November 9, 2023). "A deadly cascade: how secret Hamas attack orders were passed down at last minute". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 17 December 2023. Retrieved November 20, 2023. Analysts said other objectives of the 7 October attacks probably included halting efforts to normalise relations between Israel and Saudi Arabia, further undermining the Palestinian Authority, distracting from Hamas's failure to deliver services or break the blockade of Gaza, and provoking a violent reaction from Israel that would mobilise its own supporters in Gaza, the West Bank and elsewhere.
  61. ↑ "Syrian army command tells officers that Assad's rule has ended, officer says". Reuters. Retrieved 8 December 2024.
  62. ↑ Rich Outzen; Qutaiba Idlbi; Jonathan Panikoff; Gissou Nia; R. Clarke Cooper; Mark N. Katz; Danny Citrinowicz; Emily Milliken; Thomas S. Warrick; Arwa Damon; Sarah Zaaimi; Richard LeBaron; Karim Mezran; Joze Pelayo; Alex Plitsas; Nicholas Blanford; Daniel Mouton; Alia Brahimi (8 December 2024). "Experts react: Rebels have toppled the Assad regime. What's next for Syria, the Middle East, and the world?". Atlantic Council. Retrieved 28 November 2025.
  63. ↑ Gordon, Michael (13 June 2025). "In Twist, U.S. Diplomacy Served as Cover for Israeli Surprise Attack". The Wall Street Journal. Archived from the original on 14 June 2025. Retrieved 20 June 2025.
  64. ↑ de Haldevang, Max; Bozorgmehr, Najmeh (18 June 2025). "The Iranian generals and scientists killed by Israel's offensive". Financial Times. Archived from the original on 22 June 2025. Retrieved 26 June 2025.
  65. ↑ Campa, Kelly; Morrison, Nidal; Reddy, Ria; Ganzeveld, Annika (15 June 2025). "Iran Update Special Report, June 15, 2025, Morning Edition". Critical Threats Project. Washington, D.C.: Institute for the Study of War. Retrieved 15 June 2025.
  66. ↑ "Twelve Days Under Fire. A Comprehensive Report on the Iran-Israel War". HRANA News Agency. 28 June 2025. Retrieved 29 June 2025.
  67. ↑ "Twelve-day war: Impact of Iran's strikes censored by Israel". France 24. 5 August 2025.
  68. ↑ Howard Altman; Tyler Rogoway; Joseph Trevithick (22 June 2025). "B-2 Strikes On Iran: What We Know About Operation Midnight Hammer (Updated)". TWZ. Retrieved 28 November 2025.
  69. ↑ Noah Robertson (3 July 2025). "US strikes set back Iran's nuclear program up to 2 years, DOD says". Retrieved 28 November 2025.
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  71. ↑ "Does It Snow in Israel?". Shop Israel. Retrieved 2025-02-05.
  72. ↑ Rapoport, Amnon (1990). Experimental Studies of Interactive Decisions. Springer. p. 413. ISBN 978-0-7923-0685-6.
  73. ↑ "Israel's Special Attractions". Israel Ministry of Tourism. Retrieved 2010-06-20.
  74. ↑ "Israel turned away a record 19,000 visitors in 2018". The Times of Israel.
  75. ↑ "Israel Is World's Largest Drones Exporter". Huffington Post.com. Retrieved January 5, 2014.

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