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Decolonization

From Wikipedia
Decolonization
Subclass ofprocess Edit
Facet givecolonialism Edit
Opposite ofcolonization Edit

Decolonization be de undoing of colonialism, de latter be de process wer by imperial nations dey establish den dey dominate foreign territories, often overseas.[1] De meanings den applications of de term be disputed. Sam scholars of decolonization dey focus especially on independence movements insyd de colonies den de collapse of global colonial empires.[2][3]

As a movement to establish independence for colonized territories from dema respective metropoles, na decolonization begin insyd 1775 plus de American Revolution insyd North America against de British Empire. Na de Napoleonic Wars insyd de 19th century see de French colonial empire, de Spanish Empire, den Portugal face decolonization plus de Haitian Revolution, de Spanish American wars of independence, den de independence of Brazil from Portugal. Na a major wave of decolonization occur insyd de aftermath of de First World War, wey dey include insyd de United States den de Empire of Japan. Na anoda wave of decolonization occur after de Second World War, wey na chaw countries gain dema independence insyd de following years.

Seventeen territories remain under de United Nations classification of non-self-governing territories.

By area

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American Revolution

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Na Great Britain ein Thirteen North American colonies be de first to declare independence, wey dey form de United States of America insyd 1776, wey dem defeat Britain insyd de Revolutionary War.[4][5]

Haitian Revolution

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Main article: Haitian Revolution

Spanish America

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Map of Spanish Colonial Empire
Map of Spanish Colonial Empire

Portuguese America

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British Empire

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British Empire insyd 1952

Violence, civil warfare, den partition

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French Empire

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Further information: French colonial empire

After 1918

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United States

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Japan

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U.S. troops insyd Korea, September 1945

After 1945

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Planning for decolonization

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U.S. den Philippines
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Portugal
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Belgium
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Netherlands
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De territory of de Dutch empire before World War II

United Nations trust territories

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De emergence of de Third World (1945–present)

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Decolonization of Africa

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Decolonization insyd de Americas after 1945

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  • United Kingdom: Newfoundland (formerly an independent dominion buh under direct British rule since 1934) (1949, union plus Canada); Jamaica den Trinidad and Tobago (1962); Barbados den Guyana (1966); Bahamas (1973); Grenada (1974); Trinidad and Tobago (1976, removal of Queen Elizabeth II as head of state, transition to republic); Dominica (1978); Saint Lucia den St. Vincent and the Grenadines (1979); Antigua and Barbuda den Belize (1981); Saint Kitts and Nevis (1983); Barbados (2021, removal of Queen Elizabeth II as head of state, transition to republic).[6]
  • Netherlands: Netherlands Antilles, Suriname (1954, both cam be constituent countries of de Kingdom of the Netherlands), 1975 (independence of Suriname)
  • Denmark: Greenland (1979, cam be an autonomous territory of de Kingdom of Denmark).

Decolonization of Asia

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Western European colonial empires insyd Asia den Africa na dem all collapse insyd de years after 1945
Four nations (India, Pakistan, Dominion of Ceylon, den Union of Burma) wey gain independence insyd 1947 den 1948
  • United Kingdom: Transjordan (1946), British India den Pakistan (1947); British Mandate of Palestine, Burma den Ceylon (1948); British Malaya (1957); Kuwait (1961); Kingdom of Sarawak, North Borneo den Singapore (1963); Maldives (1965); Aden (1967); Bahrain, Qatar den United Arab Emirates (1971); Brunei (1984); Hong Kong (1997)
  •  France: French India (1954) den Indochina wey dey comprise Vietnam (1954), Cambodia (1953) den Laos (1953)
  • Portugal: Portuguese India (1961); East Timor (1975); Macau (1999)
  •  United States: Philippines (1946)
  • Netherlands: Indonesia (1949)

Decolonization insyd Europe

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Decolonization of Oceania

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  • United Kingdom: Tonga den Fiji (1970); Solomon Islands den Tuvalu (1978); Kiribati (1979)
  • United Kingdom den  France: Vanuatu (1980)
  • Australia: Nauru (1968); Papua New Guinea (1975)
  • New Zealand: Samoa (1962)
  •  United States: Marshall Islands den Federated States of Micronesia (1986); Palau (1994)

Anti-colonialist leaders dem assassinate

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Gandhi insyd 1947, plus Lord Louis Mountbatten, Britain ein last Viceroy of India, den ein wifey Vicereine Edwina Mountbatten
Patrice Lumumba, first democratically elected Prime Minister of de Congo-Léopoldville, wey be murdered by Belgian-supported Katangan separatists insyd 1961.

A non-exhaustive list of assassinated leaders go include:

Leader Title Assassin Place of death Date of death
Tiradentes Colonial Brazilian revolutionary Portuguese colonial admiministration Rio de Janeiro, Portuguese Colony of Brazil 21 April 1792
Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla Leader of de Mexican War of Independence Spanish colonial admiministration Chihuahua, Nueva Vizcaya, Viceroyalty of New Spain 30 July 1811
Ruben Um Nyobé[7][8] Leader of de Union of the Peoples of Cameroon French army Nyong-et-Kellé French Cameroon 13 September 1958
Barthélemy Boganda Leader of de independence movement in the Central African Republic Plane crash. Sam believe say na de crash be deliberate wey dem suspect say expatriate businessmen, possibly be aided by de French secret service, na dem be responsible. Boda District, Central African Republic 29 March 1959
Félix-Roland Moumié.[9] Leader of de Cameroon's People Union French secret police SDECE Geneva, Switzerland 3 November 1960
Patrice Lumumba First Prime Minister of de Democratic Republic of the Congo De separatist Katangan authorities of Moïse Tshombe execute am after Joseph-Désiré Mobutu hand am over. Élisabethville, Democratic Republic of the Congo 17 January 1961
Louis Rwagasore Burundi nationalist Dem assassinate am at de direction of leaders of a rival political party (PDC) plus potential support from de Belgian Resident insyd Burundi. Usumbura, Ruanda-Urundi 13 October 1961
Pierre Ngendandumwe Rwandan Tutsi refugee Bujumbura, Burundi 15 January 1965
Sylvanus Olympio First presido of Togo Dem assassinate am during de 1963 Togolese coup d'état. Lomé, Togo 13 January 1963
Mehdi Ben Barka Leader of de Moroccan National Union of Popular Forces (UNPF) Moroccan secret service Paris, France 29 October 1965
Ahmadu Bello First premier of Northern Nigeria Dem kill am during de 1966 Nigerian coup d'état. Kaduna, Nigeria 15 January 1966
Eduardo Mondlane Leader of FRELIMO Unknown. Possibly de Portuguese secret police (PIDE) Dar es Salaam, Tanzania 3 February 1969
Mohamed Bassiri Leader of de Movement for the Liberation of Saguia el Hamra and Wadi el Dhahab Spanish Legion El Aaiun, Spanish Sahara 18 June 1970
Amílcar Cabral Leader of PAIGC Portuguese secret police DGS/PIDE Conakry, Guinea 20 January 1973

References

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  1. ↑ Note however discussion of (for example) the Russian and Nazi empires below.
  2. ↑ Hack, Karl (2008). International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences. Detroit: Macmillan Reference. pp. 255–257. ISBN 978-0028659657.
  3. ↑ John Lynch, ed. Latin American Revolutions, 1808–1826: Old and New World Origins (1995).
  4. ↑ Robert R. Palmer, The age of the Democratic Revolution: a political history of Europe and America, 1760–1800 (1965)
  5. ↑ Richard B. Morris, The emerging nations and the American Revolution (1970).
  6. ↑ Faulconbridge, Guy; Ellsworth, Brian (30 November 2021). "Barbados ditches Britain's Queen Elizabeth to become a republic". Reuters.
  7. ↑ Gabriel Périès and David Servenay, Une guerre noire: Enquête sur les origines du génocide rwandais (1959-1994) (A Black War: Investigation into the origins of the Rwandan genocide (1959-1994)), Éditions La Découverte, 2007, p. 88. (Another account claims, without supporting citation, that Nyobe "was killed in a plane crash on September 13, 1958. No clear cause has ever been ascertained for the mysterious crash. Assassination has been alleged with the French SDECE being blamed.")
  8. ↑ "Power of the dead and language of the living: The Wanderings of Nationalist Memory in Cameroon", African Policy (June 1986), pp. 37-72
  9. ↑ Jacques Foccart, counsellor to Charles de Gaulle, Georges Pompidou and Jacques Chirac for African matters, recognized it in 1995 to Jeune Afrique review. See also Foccart parle, interviews with Philippe Gaillard, Fayard – Jeune Afrique (French) and also "The man who ran Francafrique – French politician Jacques Foccart's role in France's colonization of Africa under the leadership of Charles de Gaulle – Obituary" in The National Interest, Fall 1997

Read further

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  • Bailey, Thomas A. A diplomatic history of the American people (1969) online free
  • Betts, Raymond F. Decolonisation (2nd ed. 2004)
  • Betts, Raymond F. France and Decolonisation, 1900–1960 (1991)
  • Butler, L.; Stockwell, S. (2013). The Wind of Change: Harold Macmillan and British Decolonization. Springer. ISBN 978-1-137-31800-8.
  • Chafer, Tony. The end of empire in French West Africa: France's successful decolonisation (Bloomsbury, 2002).
  • Chamberlain, Muriel E. ed. Longman Companion to European Decolonisation in the Twentieth Century (Routledge, 2014)
  • Clayton, Anthony. The wars of French decolonisation (Routledge, 2014).
  • Cooper, Frederick (2014). "French Africa, 1947–48: Reform, Violence, and Uncertainty in a Colonial Situation". Critical Inquiry. 40 (4): 466–478. doi:10.1086/676416. JSTOR 10.1086/676416. S2CID 162291339.
  • Darwin, John. "Decolonisation and the End of Empire" in Robin W. Winks, ed., The Oxford History of the British Empire – Vol. 5: Historiography (1999) 5: 541–557.
  • Gerits, Frank. The Ideological Scramble for Africa: How the Pursuit of Anticolonial Modernity Shaped a Postcolonial Order (1945–1966) (Cornell University Press, 2023). ISBN13: 9781501767913. Major scholarly coverage of British, French and Portuguese colonies. see online reviews and reply by author
  • Monroe, Elizabeth. Britain's Moment in the Middle East, 1914–1956 (1963)
  • O'Sullivan, Christopher. FDR and the End of Empire: The Origins of American Power in the Middle East (2012).
  • Rothermund, Dietmar. The Routledge companion to decolonisation (Routledge, 2006), comprehensive global coverage; 365pp
  • Rothermund, Dietmar (2015). Memories of Post-Imperial Nations. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-107-10229-3. Compares the impact on Great Britain, the Netherlands, Belgium, France, Portugal, Italy and Japan
  • Shepard, Todd. The Invention of Decolonisation: The Algerian War and the Remaking of France (2006)
  • Simpson, Alfred William Brian. Human Rights and the End of Empire: Britain and the Genesis of the European Convention (Oxford University Press, 2004).
  • Smith, Simon C. Ending empire in the Middle East: Britain, the United States and post-war decolonisation, 1945–1973 (Routledge, 2013)
  • Smith, Tony (January 1978). "A Comparative Study of French and British Decolonization". Comparative Studies in Society and History. 20 (1): 70–102. doi:10.1017/S0010417500008835. S2CID 145080475.
  • Smith, Tony (1974). "The French Colonial Consensus and People's War, 1946-58". Journal of Contemporary History. 9 (4): 217–247. doi:10.1177/002200947400900410. JSTOR 260298. S2CID 159883569.
  • Strayer, Robert. "Decolonisation, Democratisation, and Communist Reform: The Soviet Collapse in Comparative Perspective," Journal of World History 12#2 (2001), 375–406. online Archived 2015-02-24 at the Wayback Machine
  • Thomas, Martin, Bob Moore, and Lawrence J. Butler. Crises of Empire: Decolonisation and Europe's imperial states (Bloomsbury Publishing, 2015)
  • White, Nicholas (2013). Decolonisation: The British Experience since 1945. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-317-88789-8.
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