Apocrita
| Apocrita Temporal range:
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| Seleucus cuneiformis (Ichneumonidae) | |
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| Vespula germanica (Vespidae) | |
Scientific classification 
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| Kingdom: | Animalia |
| Phylum: | Arthropoda |
| Class: | Insecta |
| Order: | Hymenoptera |
| Clade: | Unicalcarida |
| Suborder: | Apocrita Gerstaecker, 1867[1] |
| Subgroups | |
Apocrita is a suborder of insects in the order Hymenoptera. It includes wasps, bees, and ants, and consists of many families. It contains the most advanced hymenopterans and is distinguished from Symphyta by the narrow "waist" (petiole) formed between the first two segments of the actual abdomen; the first abdominal segment is fused to the thorax, and is called the propodeum.[2] Therefore, it is general practice, when discussing the body of an apocritan in a technical sense, to refer to the mesosoma and metasoma (or gaster) rather than the "thorax" and "abdomen", respectively.[3] The evolution of a constricted waist was an important adaption for the parasitoid lifestyle of the ancestral apocritan, allowing more maneuverability of the female's ovipositor.[4][5] The ovipositor either extends freely or is retracted, and may be developed into a stinger for both defense and paralyzing prey. Larvae are legless and blind, and either feed inside a host (plant or animal) or in a nest cell provisioned by their mothers.
Apocrita has historically been split into two groups, Parasitica and Aculeata. Aculeata is a clade whose name is in standard use.[6] "Parasitica" is not a clade, as it is paraphyletic: the clade would contain the Aculeata.[7] "Parasitica" is therefore a rankless grouping in many present classifications, if it appears at all.[8] Parasitica comprises the majority of hymenopteran insects, its members living as parasitoids.[9][10] Most species are small, with the ovipositor adapted for piercing. In some hosts, the parasitoids induce metamorphosis prematurely, and in others it is prolonged. There are even species that are hyperparasites, or parasitoids on other parasitoids.[11] The Parasitica lay their eggs inside or on another insect (egg, larva or pupa) and their larvae grow and develop within or on that host. The host is nearly always killed. Many parasitic hymenopterans are used as biological control agents to control pests, such as caterpillars, true bugs and hoppers, flies, and weevils.[12]
Aculeata is a monophyletic group that includes those species in which the female's ovipositor is modified into a stinger to inject venom. Groups within Aculeata include the familiar ants, bees, and various types of parasitic and predatory wasps; it also includes all of the social hymenopterans.[13] Among the nonparasitic and nonsocial Aculeata, larvae are fed with captured prey (typically alive and paralyzed) or may be fed pollen and nectar. The social Aculeata feed their young prey (paper wasps and hornets), or pollen and nectar (bees), or perhaps seeds, fungi, or nonviable eggs (ants).
Extant families and superfamilies
[edit]The Apocrita contains a large number of families. Some traditional taxa such as the Parasitica (containing many families of parasitoid wasps) have been found on molecular analysis to be paraphyletic. Parasitoidism evolved once, and it is found today across most Apocritan families, though it has been secondarily lost several times. The phylogenetic tree gives a condensed overview of the phylogeny, illustrated with major groups. The sawflies are paraphyletic as the Apocrita evolved inside that group. The tree is not fully resolved.[13][14][2][9]
Cladogram of Apocrita after Peters et al.(2017)[9]
| Apocrita |
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* Suborder Apocrita
- Parasitoida
- Superfamily Ceraphronoidea
- Superfamily Ichneumonoidea
- Infraorder Proctotrupomorpha
- Superfamily Cynipoidea
- Superfamily Platygastroidea
- Superfamily Chalcidoidea
- Superfamily Diaprioidea
- Superfamily Proctotrupoidea
- Superfamily Mymarommatoidea
- Superfamily Evanioidea
- Superfamily Stephanoidea
- Superfamily Trigonaloidea
- Infraorder Aculeata
- Superfamily Apoidea (bees and sphecoid wasps)
- Family Ammoplanidae
- Family Ampulicidae (cockroach wasps)
- Family Astatidae
- Family Bembicidae (sand wasps)
- Family Crabronidae
- Family Mellinidae
- Family Pemphredonidae
- Family Philanthidae (bee wolves)
- Family Psenidae
- Family Sphecidae (digger wasps)
- Family †Angarosphecidae
- Family †Paleomelittidae
- Family †Temnogynidae
- Clade Anthophila (bees)
- Family Andrenidae (mining bees)
- Family Apidae (carpenter bees, digger bees, cuckoo bees, bumblebees, orchid bees, stingless bees, honeybees)
- Family Colletidae (yellow-faced and plasterer bees)
- Family Halictidae (sweat bees)
- Family Megachilidae (leaf-cutting bees)
- Family Melittidae
- Family Stenotritidae
- Superfamily Chrysidoidea
- Family Bethylidae
- Family Chrysididae (cuckoo wasps)
- Family Dryinidae
- Family Embolemidae
- Family Plumariidae
- Family Sclerogibbidae
- Family Scolebythidae
- Superfamily Formicoidea
- Family Formicidae (ants)
- Superfamily Pompiloidea
- Family Mutillidae (velvet ants)
- Family Myrmosidae
- Family Pompilidae (spider wasps)
- Family Sapygidae
- Superfamily Scolioidea
- Family Scoliidae
- Superfamily Tiphioidea
- Family Bradynobaenidae
- Family Sierolomorphidae
- Family Tiphiidae
- Superfamily Thynnoidea
- Family Chyphotidae
- Family Thynnidae
- Superfamily Vespoidea
- Family Rhopalosomatidae
- Family Vespidae (paper wasps, potter wasps, hornets, pollen wasps, yellowjackets)
- Superfamily Apoidea (bees and sphecoid wasps)
- Parasitoida
References
[edit]- ^ Gerstaecker, C.E.A. (1867). "Ueber die Gattung Oxybelus Latr. und die bei Berlin vorkommenden Arten derselben". Zeitschrift für die Gesammten Naturwissenschaften (in German). 30 (7): 1–144.
- ^ a b Schulmeister, S. "Symphyta". Archived from the original on 21 June 2010. Retrieved 28 November 2016.
- ^ Serna, F.; Mackay, W. (2010). "A descriptive morphology of the ant genus Procryptocerus (Hymenoptera: Formicidae)". Journal of Insect Science. 10 (1): 157–165. doi:10.1673/031.010.11101. PMC 3016911. PMID 20672986.
- ^ Li, L.; Rasnitsyn, A.P.; Shih, C.; Ren, D. (2015). "New fossil ephialtitids elucidating the origin and transformation of the "wasp waist" (Hymenoptera: Ephialtitidae)". BMC Evolutionary Biology. 15: 56. doi:10.1186/s12862-015-0317-1. PMC 4372304. PMID 25887291.
- ^ Blaimer, B.B.; Gotzek, D.; Brady, S.G.; Buffington, M.L. (2023). "Key innovations and the diversification of Hymenoptera". Nature Communications. 14 1212. Bibcode:2023NatCo..14.1212B. doi:10.1038/s41467-023-36868-4. PMC 9984522. PMID 36859423.
- ^ Davis, R.B.; Baldauf, S.L.; Mayhew, P.J. (2010). "The origins of species richness in the Hymenoptera: insights from a family-level supertree". BMC Evolutionary Biology. 10 (1): 109. Bibcode:2010BMCEE..10..109D. doi:10.1186/1471-2148-10-109. PMC 2873417. PMID 20416109.
- ^ Sharkey, M.J.; Carpenter, J.M.; Vilhelmsen, L.; Heraty, J.; Liljeblad, J.; Dowling, A.P.G.; Schulmeister, S.; Murray, D.; Deans, A.R.; Ronquist, F.; Krogmann, L.; Wheeler, W.C. (2012). "Phylogenetic relationships among superfamilies of Hymenoptera". Cladistics. 28 (1): 80–112. doi:10.1111/j.1096-0031.2011.00366.x. PMC 5998440. PMID 34860942.
- ^ Aguiar, A.P.; et al. (2013). "Order Hymenoptera". Zootaxa. 3703 (1): 51–62. doi:10.11646/zootaxa.3703.1.12.
- ^ a b c Peters, Ralph S.; Krogmann, Lars; Mayer, Christoph; Donath, Alexander; Gunkel, Simon; Meusemann, Karen; Kozlov, Alexey; Podsiadlowski, Lars; Petersen, Malte (2017). "Evolutionary History of the Hymenoptera". Current Biology. 27 (7): 1013–1018. Bibcode:2017CBio...27.1013P. doi:10.1016/j.cub.2017.01.027. hdl:2434/801122. PMID 28343967.
- ^ Heraty, John; Ronquist, Fredrik; Carpenter, James M.; Hawks, David; Schulmeister, Susanne; Dowling, Ashley P.; Murray, Debra; Munro, James; Wheeler, Ward C. (2011). "Evolution of the hymenopteran megaradiation". Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution. 60 (1): 73–88. Bibcode:2011MolPE..60...73H. doi:10.1016/j.ympev.2011.04.003. PMID 21540117.
- ^ Sullivan, Daniel J. (2009). "Hyperparasitism". Encyclopedia of Insects. Elsevier. pp. 486–488. doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-374144-8.00138-7. ISBN 978-0-12-374144-8.
- ^ "Parasitoid Wasps (Hymenoptera)". University of Maryland. Archived from the original on 27 August 2016. Retrieved 6 June 2016.
- ^ a b Branstetter, Michael G.; Danforth, Bryan N.; Pitts, James P.; Faircloth, Brant C.; Ward, Philip S.; Buffington, Matthew L.; Gates, Michael W.; Kula, Robert R.; Brady, Seán G. (2017). "Phylogenomic Insights into the Evolution of Stinging Wasps and the Origins of Ants and Bees". Current Biology. 27 (7): 1019–1025. Bibcode:2017CBio...27.1019B. doi:10.1016/j.cub.2017.03.027. PMID 28376325.
- ^ Schulmeister, S. (2003). "Simultaneous analysis of basal Hymenoptera (Insecta), introducing robust-choice sensitivity analysis". Biological Journal of the Linnean Society. 79 (2): 245–275. doi:10.1046/j.1095-8312.2003.00233.x.
External links
[edit]
- Suborder Apocrita – Ants, Bees and Wasps – BugGuide.Net — images and other information
- Tree of Life
- Balades Entomologiques — "entomological walks" with images (in French)
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