Principality of Galicia
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| Principality of Halych Галицьке кнѧзівство (Old East Slavic) | |||||||||||||
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| Principality of Kyivan Ruthenia | |||||||||||||
| 1124–1199 (1205–1239) | |||||||||||||
 Flag
 Coat of arms
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 Halych Principality in the 12th century | |||||||||||||
| Capital | Halych | ||||||||||||
| History | |||||||||||||
• Succeeded from Peremyshl-Terebovlia Principality | 1124 | ||||||||||||
• United with Volyn Principality | 1199 (1205–1239) | ||||||||||||
| Political subdivisions | Principalities of Kyivan Ruthenia | ||||||||||||
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| Today part of | |||||||||||||
The Principality of Halych (Ukrainian: Галицьке князівство; Old East Slavic: Галицьке кнѧзівство, romanized: Halytske kniazivstvo), also known as the Principality of Halych or Principality of Halychian Rus',[1] was a medieval East Slavic principality and one of the main regional states within the political framework of Kyivan Ruthenia. It was established by members of the senior line of the descendants of Yaroslav the Wise.
A distinctive feature of the principality was the significant role of the nobility and townspeople in political life, with princely rule depending largely on their consent.[2] Halych, the capital, was first mentioned around 1124 as the seat of Ivan Vasylkovych, grandson of Rostislav of Tmutarakan.
According to Mykhailo Hrushevsky, the domain of Halych was inherited by Rostyslav after the death of his father, Volodymyr Yaroslavych. However, Rostyslav was later expelled by his uncle and moved to Tmutarakan.[3] The territory was subsequently transferred to Yaropolk Iziaslavych, son of the Grand Prince Iziaslav I of Kyiv.
Prehistory
[edit]The earliest recorded Slavic tribes inhabiting the territory of Red Rus' were the White Croats and the Dulebes.[4][5][6]
In 907, the Croats and Dulebes took part in the military campaign against Constantinople led by Prince Oleh of Kyiv.[7][8] This was the first notable evidence of political alignment among the native tribes of Red Rus'.
According to Nestor the Chronicler, strongholds in the western part of Red Rus' were conquered by Volodymyr the Great in 981. In 992 or 993, Volodymyr conducted a campaign against the Croats.[9][10] Around this time, the city of Volodymyr was founded in his honour and became the main political centre of the region.
During the 11th century, the western border cities, including Przemyśl, were annexed twice by the Kingdom of Poland (1018–1031 and 1069–1080). Meanwhile, Yaroslav the Wise consolidated Rus' authority in the area, establishing the city of Jarosław.
As part of Kyivan Ruthenia, the region was later organized as the southern portion of the Volodymyr Principality. Around 1085, with the support of Grand Prince Vsevolod I of Kyiv, the three Rostyslavych brothers—sons of Rostislav Volodymyrovych of Tmutarakan—settled in the region. Their lands were divided into three smaller principalities: Przemyśl, Zvenyhorod and Terebovlia.
In 1097, the Council of Liubech confirmed Vasylko Rostyslavych as Prince of Terebovlia, securing his rule after years of civil conflict. In 1124, the Principality of Halych emerged as a minor polity when Vasylko transferred part of his domain to his son, Ihor Vasylkovych, separating it from the larger Terebovlia Principality.
Unification (1099–1152)
[edit]The Rostyslavych brothers succeeded not only in maintaining political independence from Volodymyr but also in defending their lands against external threats. In 1099, at the Battle of Rozhne Field, the Halychian Ukrainians defeated the army of Grand Prince Sviatopolk II of Kyiv. Later that year, they also defeated the army of Hungarian king Coloman near Przemyśl.[11]
These two victories ensured nearly a century of relative stability and development in the Halychian Ukrainian principality.[12] The four sons of the Rostyslavych brothers divided the territory into four domains, centred in Przemyśl (Rostyslav), Zvenyhorod (Volodymyrko), Halych, and Terebovlia (Ivan and Yuriy). After the deaths of three of them, Volodymyrko gained control over Przemyśl and Halych, while Zvenyhorod was granted to his nephew Ivan Rostyslavych Berladnyk, the son of his elder brother Rostyslav.
In 1141, Volodymyrko moved his residence from Przemyśl to the more strategically located city of Halych, effectively establishing a unified Halychian, Ukrainian principality. In 1145, while Volodymyrko was absent, the citizens of Halych supported Ivan Berladnyk's attempt to seize the throne. After Berladnyk's defeat outside Halych, the Principality of Zvenyhorod was incorporated into the Halychian, Ukrainian lands.
Volodymyrko pursued a policy of balancing relations with neighbouring powers. He consolidated princely authority, annexed several towns from the domain of the Grand Prince of Kyiv, and succeeded in retaining them despite conflicts with both Iziaslav II of Kyiv and Géza II of Hungary.[13]
Reign of Yaroslav Osmomysl (1153–1187)
[edit]Domestic policies
[edit]
In 1152, following the death of Volodymyrko, the Halychian Ukrainian throne passed to his only son, Yaroslav Osmomysl. Yaroslav began his reign with the Battle of the Siret River in 1153 against Grand Prince Iziaslav, which resulted in heavy losses for the Halychian Ukrainians, but ended with Iziaslav's retreat and death soon after. This eliminated the immediate threat from the east, and Yaroslav secured peace with his other neighbours, Hungary and Poland, through diplomacy. He also neutralised his main rival, Ivan Rostyslavych Berladnyk, the senior descendant of the Rostyslavych brothers and former prince of Zvenyhorod.
These diplomatic achievements allowed Yaroslav to focus on domestic development. His rule was marked by construction projects in Halych and other towns, the enrichment of monasteries, and the consolidation of Halychian Ukrainian influence in the lower reaches of the Dniester, Prut, and Danube rivers. Around 1157, the Assumption Cathedral was completed in Halych; it was the second largest church in Kyivan Ruthenia after Saint Sophia in Kyiv.[14] The city itself developed into a large urban centre, covering approximately 11 × 8.5 kilometres.[15][16]
Despite his strong international position, Yaroslav's rule was influenced by the citizens of Halych, whose collective will he was often compelled to respect, even in matters of personal and family life.
Contacts with the Byzantine Empire
[edit]During this period, Byzantine emperor Manuel I Komnenos sought to involve the Rus' principalities in his diplomatic strategy against Hungary. Volodymyrko had earlier been described as Manuel's vassal (hypospondos), but following the deaths of both Iziaslav and Volodymyrko, the situation shifted. With Yuri of Suzdal, Manuel's ally, seizing Kyiv, Yaroslav of Halych adopted a pro-Hungarian stance.[17]
In 1164–65, Manuel's cousin, Andronikos, the future emperor, escaped from captivity in Byzantium and sought refuge at Yaroslav's court in Halych. The possibility of Andronikos launching a claim to the Byzantine throne with Halychian Ukrainian and Hungarian support alarmed Manuel, who pardoned him and secured his return to Constantinople in 1165. A subsequent mission to Kyiv, then ruled by Prince Rostislav I of Kyiv, produced a favourable treaty and the promise of auxiliary troops. Yaroslav, too, was persuaded to renounce his Hungarian alliance and re-enter the Byzantine sphere of influence. As late as 1200, the princes of Halych continued to provide military support to the Empire, particularly in campaigns against the Cumans.[18]
Improved relations with Halych soon benefited Byzantium. In 1166, Manuel launched a major campaign against Hungary, sending two armies in a coordinated assault. One force advanced across the Wallachian Plain into Transylvania via the Southern Carpathians, while the other marched through Halychian Ukraine, with Halychian Ukrainian support, and crossed the Carpathian Mountains. This campaign resulted in the devastation of the Hungarian province of Transylvania.[19]
"Freedom in princes" (1187–1199)
[edit]
A distinctive feature of political life in the Halychian Ukrainian principality was the strong role played by the nobility and townspeople. The Halychian Ukrainians adhered to the principle of "freedom in princes," under which they invited or expelled rulers and influenced their policies.
Contrary to the wishes of Yaroslav Osmomysl, who had designated his younger son Oleh as successor, the Halychian Ukrainians invited Oleh's brother Volodymyr II Yaroslavych to rule. After conflicts with him, they later turned to Roman the Great, prince of Volodymyr. Roman, however, was soon replaced by Andrew, son of King Béla III. The Hungarian monarch and his son promised the Halychian Ukrainians broad autonomy in government, which was a key reason for their selection.[20][non-primary source needed]
This period is sometimes regarded as the first experiment in self-governance by Halychian Ukrainian nobles and citizens. However, dissatisfaction quickly grew due to the misconduct of the Hungarian garrison and attempts to introduce Roman Catholic practices.[21] As a result, Volodymyr II was restored to the throne, ruling in Halych until 1199.
Autocracy of Roman the Great and unification with Volhynia (1199–1205)
[edit]After the death of Volodymyr II Yaroslavych, the last of the Rostislavych line, in 1199, the Halychian Ukrainians began negotiations with the sons of his sister (daughter of Yaroslav Osmomysl) and with Prince Ihor—the central figure of The Tale of Ihor's Campaign—regarding succession to the Halychian, Ukrainian throne. However, Roman the Great, prince of Volodymyr, with the support of Leszek the White, succeeded in seizing Halych despite strong local resistance.[22]
The following six years were marked by repression of the nobility and politically active citizens, alongside significant territorial and political expansion. This period transformed Halych into a major centre of Rus'. The Principality of Volhynia was united with the Ukrainian Principality of Halych, with the city of Halych becoming the capital of the new Halych–Volhynia principality.
Roman defeated the Ihorevych brothers, rivals for the Halychian Ukrainian throne, and established control over Kyiv, installing his allies there with the consent of Vsevolod the Big Nest. Following victorious campaigns against the Cumans and possibly the Lithuanians, Roman reached the height of his power. Contemporary chronicles referred to him as "Tsar and Autocrat of all Rus'."[23][24][25]
After Roman's death in 1205, his widow sought to preserve power in Halych, Ukraine by appealing to King Andrew II of Hungary, who sent a Hungarian garrison to support her. However, in 1206 the Halychian Ukrainians once again turned to Volodymyr III Ihorevych, son of Yaroslav Osmomysl's daughter. Roman's widow and sons were forced to flee the city.
Climax of citizens–nobles rule (1205–1238)
[edit]
Volodymyr III ruled in Halych Ukraine for only two years. Following conflicts with his brother Roman II Ihorevych, he was expelled, and Roman took the Halychian Ukrainian throne. Roman was soon replaced by Rostislav II of Kyiv. When Roman regained power after deposing Rostislav, the Halychian Ukrainians appealed to the Hungarian king, who dispatched the palatine Benedict to Halych.[26] While Benedict remained in Halych, the citizens invited Prince Mstislav the Dumb of Peresopnytsia, though he was quickly dismissed. To remove Benedict, the Halychian Ukrainians again turned to the Ihorevych brothers—Volodymyr III and Roman II—who expelled the Hungarian garrison and re-established their rule. Volodymyr III settled in Halych, Roman II in Zvenyhorod, and their brother Svyatoslav in Przemyśl.
The Ihorevych brothers' attempts to consolidate rule without consultation led to conflict with the Halychian Ukrainians, during which many nobles were killed.[27] The brothers were later executed, and the throne was offered to Danylo, the young son of Roman the Great. After his mother attempted to assume power as regent, she was expelled, and Mstislav the Dumb was recalled, though he fled fearing the arrival of Hungarian forces summoned by Danylo's mother.
After the failure of the Hungarian campaign, the Halychian Ukrainians took an unprecedented step in Rus' history by enthroning one of their own nobles, Volodyslav Kormylchych, in 1211 or 1213.[28][29][30] This episode is regarded as the peak of citizens–nobles self-rule in Halych.
Volodyslav's rule provoked intervention from neighbouring states. Despite local resistance, foreign forces prevailed. In 1214, King Andrew II of Hungary and Prince Leszek the White of Poland agreed to partition Halych Ukraine: the western lands went to Poland, and the rest to Hungary. Benedict returned to the city of Halych, and Andrew's son Coloman received a royal crown from the Pope with the title "King of Halych." Religious disputes with the local population[31] and the Hungarian occupation of lands promised to Poland, however, led to their expulsion in 1215.
The Halychian Ukrainians then enthroned Mstislav the Bold of Novhorod. Under his rule, political power rested with the nobility,[32][33] and the prince had little control even over the Halychian Ukrainian army. Mstislav nevertheless remained unpopular, and support gradually shifted toward Prince Andrew.
In 1227 Mstislav arranged for his daughter to marry Andrew and transferred authority in Halych to him. Andrew's careful respect for noble privileges secured him a long period of local support. However, in 1233 part of the Halychian Ukrainians invited Danylo back. Following a siege and Andrew’s death, Danylo briefly captured Halych but soon withdrew due to lack of broader backing.
In 1235 the Halychian Ukrainians invited Mykhailo of Chernihiv and his son Rostislav Mykhailovych, whose mother was a daughter of Roman the Great and sister of Danylo.[34] During the Mongol invasion of Kyivan Ruthenia, control of Halych again shifted to Danylo, though his authority remained contested, as chronicles mention the enthronement of the local noble Dobroslav Suddych.[35]
Danylo of Halych and the Mongol invasion (1238–1264)
[edit]In the 1240s, significant changes occurred in the history of the Halychian Ukrainian Principality. In 1241, the city of Halych was captured by the Mongol army.[36] In 1245, Danylo achieved a decisive victory over the combined Hungarian–Polish forces of his rival Rostyslav Mykhailovych, thereby reuniting Halych with Volhynia.
Following this victory, Danylo established his residence in Kholm in western Volhynia. After visiting Batu Khan, he began paying tribute to the Golden Horde. Despite the tributes, the unification of the principalities and other positive developments marked the start of cultural, economic, and political growth in Halych - ushering in its golden age.
Last rise and decline (1269–1349)
[edit]During the later years of Danylo's rule, Halych Ukraine passed into the hands of his eldest son, Lev I of Halych, who, after his father's death, gradually extended his authority over all of Volhynia. In the second half of the thirteenth century, he elevated the importance of Lvihorod, a new political and administrative center founded near Zvenyhorod on the border with Volhynia.
Around 1300, Lev briefly established control over Kyiv, although he remained dependent on the Golden Horde. Following Lev's death, the center of the united Halych–Volhynian state shifted back to the city of Volodymyr. Under subsequent rulers, the local nobility gradually regained influence, and from 1341 to 1349 power was effectively exercised by the nobleman Dmytro Dedko, while the Lithuanian prince Liubartas held nominal authority.[37]
In 1349, following Dmytro's death, the Polish king Casimir III the Great marched on Lvihorod, acting in concert with both the Golden Horde[38] and the Kingdom of Hungary.[39] This campaign marked the end of Halych Ukraine's political independence and its annexation into the Polish Crown, and subsequently its downfall and the beginning of Polish attempts suppression, oppression, and destruction of Ukraine and Ukrainians in earnest.
Post-history
[edit]In 1387, all the lands of the former Halychian Ukrainian principality were incorporated into the possessions of Polish queen Jadwiga. In 1434, the territory was reorganized as the Rus' Voivodeship. Following the first partition of Poland in 1772, Halych was annexed by the Austrian Empire and established as the administrative unit known as the Kingdom of Halych and Volodymyr, with its center in Lviv.
Relations with the Byzantine Empire
[edit]The Halychian Ukrainian Principality maintained particularly close ties with the Byzantine Empire, closer than most other principalities of Kyivan Ruthenia. According to some sources, in 1104, Volodar of Peremyshl's daughter Irina married Isaac, the third son of Byzantine Emperor Alexios I Komnenos.[40] Their son, the future Emperor Andronikos I Komnenos, reportedly spent time in Halych and governed several cities of the principality in 1164–1165.[41][42]
According to Bartholomew of Lucca, Byzantine Emperor Alexius III fled to Halych following the capture of Constantinople by the Crusaders in 1204.[43][44]
The Halychian Ukrainian Principality and the Byzantine Empire were also frequent allies in campaigns against the Cumans.
Princes of Halych
[edit]| Prince | Years | Remarks |
|---|---|---|
| Ivan Vasylkovych | 1124–1141 | Son of Vasilko Rostislavych of Terebovlia (not listed by Hrushevsky) |
| Volodymyrko Volodarovych | 1141–1144 | Son of Volodar Rostyslavych of Przemyśl |
| Ivan Rostyslavych Berladnyk | 1144 | Son of Rostyslav Volodarovych of Przemyśl (not listed by Hrushevsky) |
| Volodymyrko Volodarovych | 1144–1153 | Restored |
| Yaroslav Osmomysl | 1153–1187 | Son of Volodymyrko Volodarovych |
| Oleh Yaroslavych | 1187 | Son of Yaroslav Osmomysl |
| Volodymyr II Yaroslavych | 1187–1188 | Son of Yaroslav Osmomysl |
| Roman Mstyslavych | 1188–1189 | Prince of Volhynia |
| Volodymyr II Yaroslavych | 1189–1199 | Restored |
| Roman Mstyslavych | 1199–1205 | Restored |
| Danylo Romanovych | 1205–1206 | Son of Roman Mstyslavych |
| Volodymyr III Ihorevych | 1206–1208 | From the Olhovychi of Chernihiv |
| Roman II Ihorevych | 1208–1209 | Brother of Volodymyr Ihorevych |
| Rostislav II of Kyiv | 1210 | Son of Rurik Rostislavych of Kyiv |
| Roman II Ihorevych | 1210 | Restored |
| Volodymyr III Ihorevych | 1210–1211 | Restored |
| Danylo Romanovych | 1211–1212 | Restored |
| Mstyslav of Peresopnytsia | 1212–1213 | From the Iziaslavychi of Volhynia |
| Volodyslav Kormylchych | 1213–1214 | Boyar of Halych |
| Coloman II | 1214–1219 | Son of Andrew II of Hungary |
| Mstyslav the Bold | 1219 | From the Rostislavychi of Smolensk; grandson of Yaroslav Osmomysl (maternal line) |
| Coloman II | 1219–1221? | Restored (dates uncertain) |
| Mstyslav the Bold | 1221?–1228 | Restored (dates uncertain) |
| Andriy Andrievych | 1228–1230 | Son of Andrew II of Hungary |
| Danylo Romanovych | 1230–1232 | Restored |
| Andriy Andrievych | 1232–1233 | Restored |
| Danylo Romanovych | 1233–1235 | Restored |
| Mykhailo Vsevolodovych | 1235–1236 | From the Olhovychi of Chernihiv |
| Rostislav Mykhailovych | 1236–1238 | Son of Mykhailo Vsevolodovych |
| Danylo Romanovych | 1238–1264 | Restored (fifth time) |
| Shvarno Danylovych | 1264–1269 | Son of Danylo; co-ruler with Lev I |
| Lev I of Halych | 1264–1301? | Son of Danylo |
| Yuri I of Halych | 1301?–1308? | Son of Lev I |
| Lev II of Halych | 1308–1323 | Son of Yuri I |
| Volodymyr Lvovych | 1323–1325 | Son of Lev II |
| Yuri II Boleslav | 1325–1340 | From Mazovian princes; grandson of Yuri I |
| Dmytro Liubart | 1340–1349 | From the Lithuanian dynasty |
References
[edit]- ^ Larry Wolff (2010). The Idea of Galicia. Stanford University Press. pp. 254–255. Online at Google Books
- ^ Майоров, А. В. Галицко-Волынская Русь. Очерки социально-политических отношений в домонгольский период. Князь, бояре и городская община. Санкт-Петербург: Университетская книга, 2001. 640 pp.
- ^ М. Грушевський. Історія України-Руси. Том II, Розділ VII, стор. 1.
- ^ Magocsi, Paul Robert (1995). "The Carpatho-Rusyns". Carpatho-Rusyn American. XVIII (4). Carpatho-Rusyn Research Center.
- ^ Magocsi, Paul Robert (2002). The Roots of Ukrainian Nationalism: Galicia as Ukraine's Piedmont. University of Toronto Press. pp. 2–4. ISBN 9780802047380.
- ^ Sedov, Valentin Vasilyevych (2013) [1995]. Славяне в раннем Средневековье [Slavs in the Early Middle Ages]. Novi Sad: Akademska knjiga. pp. 168, 444, 451. ISBN 978-86-6263-026-1.
- ^ "Oleg of Kiev | History of Russia". historyofrussia.org. Retrieved 2016-02-14.
- ^ Ипатьевская летопись (Hypatian Chronicle). Saint Petersburg, 1908. col. 21.
- ^ Літопис Руський. Роки 988–1015.
- ^ Samuel Hazzard Cross; Olgerd P. Sherbowitz-Wetzor, eds. (1953), The Russian Primary Chronicle: Laurentian Text (PDF), Cambridge, Massachusetts: Medieval Academy of America, p. 119
- ^ Font, Márta (2001). Koloman the Learned, King of Hungary. Supervised by Gyula Kristó, Translated by Monika Miklán. Publication Commission of the Faculty of Humanities of the University of Pécs. p. 73. ISBN 963-482-521-4.
- ^ М. Грушевський. Історія України-Руси. Том II, Розділ VII, стор. 1.
- ^ Makk, Ferenc (1989). The Árpáds and the Comneni: Political Relations between Hungary and Byzantium in the 12th Century. Translated by György Novák. Akadémiai Kiadó. p. 47. ISBN 963-05-5268-X
- ^ Пастернак Я. Старий Галич: Археологічно-історичні досліди в 1850–1943 рр. Краків–Львів, 1944, pp. 66, 71–72.
- ^ Петрушевич А. Критико-исторические рассуждения о надднестрянском городе Галичъ и его достопамятностях. Львов, 1882–1888, pp. 7–602.
- ^ Могитич Р. Містобудівельний феномен давнього Галича. Галицька брама, Львів, 1998, № 9, pp. 13–16.
- ^ D. Obolensky, The Byzantine Commonwealth, pp. 299–300.
- ^ D. Obolensky, The Byzantine Commonwealth, pp. 300–302.
- ^ M. Angold, The Byzantine Empire, 1025–1204, p. 177.
- ^ ПСРЛ. — Т. 2. Ипатьевская летопись. — Санкт-Петербург, 1908. — Стлб. 661.
- ^ Dimnik, Martin (2003). The Dynasty of Chernihiv, 1146–1246. Cambridge University Press. p. 193. ISBN 978-0-521-03981-9.
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- ^ ПСРЛ. — Т. 2. Ипатьевская летопись. — Санкт-Петербург, 1908. — Стлб. 722.
- ^ M. Hrushevsky, History of Ukraine-Rus, Volume III, Knyho-Spilka, New York, 1954, p. 26.
- ^ Грушевський М.С. "Хронольогія подій Галицько-Волинської літописи" // ЗНТШ, Львів, 1901, Т. XLI, С. 12.
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- ^ Фроянов И.Я., Дворниченко А.Ю. Города-государства Юго-Западной Руси. Л., 1988. С. 150.
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- ^ Крип'якевич І.П. Галицько-Волинське князівство. Київ, 1984. С. 90.
- ^ Софроненко К.А. Общественно-политический строй Галицко-Волынской Руси XI–XIII вв. Москва, 1955. С. 98.
- ^ M. Hrushevsky, History of Ukraine-Rus, Volume III, Knyho-Spilka, New York, 1954, p. 54.
- ^ ПСРЛ. — Т. 2. Ипатьевская летопись. — Санкт-Петербург, 1908. — Стлб. 789.
- ^ ПСРЛ. — Т. 2. Ипатьевская летопись. — Санкт-Петербург, 1908. — Стлб. 786.
- ^ M. Hrushevsky, History of Ukraine-Rus' , Volume IV, Knyho-Spilka, New York, 1954, p. 20.
- ^ Nuncii Tartarorum venerunt ad Regem Poloniae. Et in fine eiusdem anni Rex Kazimirus terram Russiae obtinuit, Monumenta Poloniae Historica II, p. 885.
- ^ M. Hrushevsky, History of Ukraine-Rus' , Volume IV, Knyho-Spilka, New York, 1954, p. 35.
- ^ Hypatian Codex, Ипатьевская летопись. — Санкт-Петербург, 1908. — Стлб. 256
- ^ Nicetae Choniatae, Historia, Rec. I. Bekker, Bonn, 1835, pp. 168–171, 172–173 (lib. IV, cap. 2; lib. V, cap. 3).
- ^ Tiuliumeanu, M., Andronic I Comnenul, Iași, 2000.
- ^ Girgensonn, J., Kritische Untersuchung über das VII. Buch der Historia Polonica des Dlugosch, Göttingen, 1872, p. 65.
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Bibliography
[edit]- Hrushevsky, M. History of Ukraine-Rus. Saint Petersburg, 1913.
- History of Ukraine-Rus. Vienna, 1921.
- Illustrated history of Ukraine. "BAO". Donetsk, 2003. ISBN 966-548-571-7 (Chief Editor - Iosif Broyak)
- Obolensky, Dimitri (1971). The Byzantine Commonwealth: Eastern Europe 500–1453. London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson. ISBN 1-84212-019-0.
External links
[edit]- Halych principality in Encyclopedia of Ukraine, vol. 2 (1988). (in English) (Encyclopedia of Ukraine)