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Anti-inflammatory

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Anti-inflammatory refers to any drug, substance or mechanism that reduces inflammation by lessening the redness, swelling, fever, or pain and loss of function which are part of bodies inflammatory response. Anti-inflammatory drugs are agents that inhibit action or production of inflammatory mediators such as cytokines, histamines and prostaglandins. These drugs reduce pain by inhibiting mechanisms of inflammation, as opposed to opioids, which affect the central nervous system to block pain.[not verified in body]

Common anti-inflammatory drugs include nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs),[1] corticosteroids, antileukotrienes, and monoclonal antibodies.

Clinically approved

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Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs

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Main article: Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug

NSAIDs alleviate pain by counteracting the cyclooxygenase (COX) enzyme involved in pain mechanisms.[1][2]

Some common examples of NSAIDs are aspirin, ibuprofen, and naproxen.[1] Selective COX-2 inhibitors, such as celecoxib, block the enzymatic conversion of arachidonic acid into prostaglandin, inhibiting inflammation and pain.[3]

Analgesics commonly associated with anti-inflammatory drugs, such as paracetamol (acetaminophen), have no peripheral anti-inflammatory effects.[4] High, short-term doses of NSAIDs may become toxic, causing gastric erosions, stomach ulcers, internal bleeding, hepatotoxicity, or kidney disease.[4]

The risk of death as a result of GI bleeding caused by the use of NSAIDs is 1 in 12,000 for adults aged 16–45.[5] The risk increases almost twentyfold for those over 75.[5] Apart from aspirin, frequent or high doses of prescription and over-the-counter NSAIDs may increase the risk of heart attack and stroke.[6]

Corticosteroids

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Corticosteroids, specifically glucocorticoids or glucocorticoid receptor agonists, are powerful anti-inflammatory agents, but they are also powerful immunosuppressants and are associated with various toxicities, which constrain their use.[7][8]

Antileukotrienes

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Antileukotrienes are anti-inflammatory agents which function as leukotriene-related enzyme inhibitors (arachidonate 5-lipoxygenase) or leukotriene receptor antagonists (cysteinyl leukotriene receptors), and consequently oppose the function of these inflammatory mediators. Although they are not used for analgesic benefits, they are used to manage diseases related to inflammation of the lungs, such as asthma, as well as being used for sinus inflammation in allergic rhinitis.[9][10] Examples include montelukast and zileuton.[medical citation needed]

Monoclonal antibodies

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Monoclonal antibodies, for instance against pro-inflammatory cytokines like interleukin-6 (anti-interleukin-6) and tumor necrosis factor α (TNFα) (TNF inhibitors), are approved and used in the treatment autoimmune diseases and other inflammatory conditions.[11][12][13]

Colchicine

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Colchicine is an anti-inflammatory agent that disrupts the function of cytoskeletal by inhibiting microtubule polymerization, doing so prevents the activation, degranulation and migration of neutrophils.[14] Colchicine is mostly used in treatment of acute gout. It can also be used for treating familial Mediterranean fever and pericarditis.[15]

Investigational and off-label

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Omega-3 fatty acids

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Omega-3 fatty acids may have anti-inflammatory effects, although clinical studies show that possible effects have been inconsistent, requiring further research.[16] A 2017 review indicated that omega-3 fatty acids may benefit rheumatoid arthritis,[17] although another analysis indicated no consistent effect.[16] There is no good evidence that use of omega-3 fatty acids provides relief in retinal inflammation or in dry eye syndrome.[16]

N-Acetylcysteine

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N-Acetylcysteine (NAC) has been found to possess anti-inflammatory effects and has been clinically studied in the treatment of conditions involving inflammation.[18]

Melatonin

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A 2021 review reported that melatonin has anti-inflammatory effects.[19] Found to reduce levels of several pro-inflammatory cytokines, it remains under preliminary research for its potential to treat inflammation.[19]

Serotonin 5-HT2A receptor agonists

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Serotonin 5-HT2A receptor agonists, including serotonergic psychedelics, are under preliminary research as possible anti-inflammatory agents.[20][21] The anti-inflammatory effects of some psychedelics, like DOI and psilocybin, have been found to occur at much lower doses than those at which they produce their hallucinogenic effects.[21] Serotonin 5-HT2A receptor agonists with anti-inflammatory properties are under clinical investigation as possible treatments for inflammatory disorders.[22]

Tetracyclic antibiotics

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See also: Doxycycline § Anti-inflammatory agent, and Minocycline § Research

The tetracycline antibiotics minocycline and doxycycline have been found to have anti-inflammatory and immunomodulatory effects.[23][24] Minocycline has been found to have some clinical benefit in people with treatment-resistant depression with inflammation but not in those without inflammation.[25]

Macrolide antibiotics

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See also: Azithromycin § Airway diseases, and Azithromycin § Research

The macrolide antibiotic azithromycin is known to have anti-inflammatory and immunomodulatory properties.[26] It is said to be established and effective for certain inflammatory airway diseases such as asthma and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD).[26][27][28][29] Azithromycin is also being assessed for potential treatment of other chronic inflammatory disorders.[30][31]

Statins

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Statins like atorvastatin and simvastatin are used to treat inflammatory conditions like rheumatoid arthritis and chronic kidney disease.[32][33][34] Statins may be useful for treating other inflammatory conditions, like uveitis,[34] depression,[35][36] and possibly neuropsychiatric disorders.[37][38] However, higher-quality evidence of statins for treatment of neuropsychiatric and other conditions is still needed.[39]

Curcumin

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A 2019 systematic review and meta-analysis found that curcumin or turmeric did not significantly decrease several circulating inflammatory markers in people with various chronic inflammatory diseases.[40] Major problems of assessing curcumin in human studies are its unknown fate and properties after digestion, and its poor bioavailability.[41][42][43]

References

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  1. ^ a b c Ghlichloo I, Gerriets V (1 May 2023). "Nonsteroidal Anti-Inflammatory Drugs (NSAIDs)". StatPearls [Internet]. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing. PMID 31613522. Retrieved 25 May 2025 – via US National Library of Medicine.
  2. ^ Knights KM, Mangoni AA, Miners JO (November 2010). "Defining the COX inhibitor selectivity of NSAIDs: implications for understanding toxicity". Expert Review of Clinical Pharmacology. 3 (6): 769–776. doi:10.1586/ecp.10.120. PMID 22111779. S2CID 207209534.
  3. ^ Qureshi O, Dua A (28 February 2024). "COX inhibitors". StatPearls, US National Library of Medicine. Retrieved 25 May 2025.
  4. ^ a b Gerriets V, Anderson J, Patel P, Nappe TM (11 January 2024). "Acetaminophen". StatPearls, US National Library of Medicine. PMID 29493991. Retrieved 25 May 2025.
  5. ^ a b "Table 7". NSAIDs and adverse effects. Bandolier. Archived from the original on 18 February 2012. Retrieved 20 December 2012.
  6. ^ Trelle S, Reichenbach S, Wandel S, Hildebrand P, Tschannen B, Villiger PM, et al. (January 2011). "Cardiovascular safety of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs: network meta-analysis". BMJ. 342 c7086. doi:10.1136/bmj.c7086. PMC 3019238. PMID 21224324.
  7. ^ Ingawale DK, Mandlik SK (April 2020). "New insights into the novel anti-inflammatory mode of action of glucocorticoids". Immunopharmacology and Immunotoxicology. 42 (2): 59–73. doi:10.1080/08923973.2020.1728765. PMID 32070175.
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  10. ^ Niwas H, Bansal P, Pentela B, Mazumder A (October 2025). "The Spectrum of Allergic Rhinitis: Risk Factors and their Clinical Relevance". Recent Advances in Inflammation & Allergy Drug Discovery. 19. doi:10.2174/0127722708397912251001102439. PMID 41126418.
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  18. ^ Santus P, Signorello JC, Danzo F, Lazzaroni G, Saad M, Radovanovic D (July 2024). "Anti-Inflammatory and Anti-Oxidant Properties of N-Acetylcysteine: A Fresh Perspective". Journal of Clinical Medicine. 13 (14): 4127. doi:10.3390/jcm13144127. PMC 11278452. PMID 39064168.
  19. ^ a b Cho JH, Bhutani S, Kim CH, Irwin MR (March 2021). "Anti-inflammatory effects of melatonin: A systematic review and meta-analysis of clinical trials". Brain, Behavior, and Immunity. 93: 245–253. doi:10.1016/j.bbi.2021.01.034. PMC 7979486. PMID 33581247.
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  35. ^ De Giorgi R, De Crescenzo F, Rizzo Pesci N, Martens M, Howard W, Cowen PJ, et al. (2021). "Statins for major depressive disorder: A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials". PLOS ONE. 16 (3) e0249409. Bibcode:2021PLoSO..1649409D. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0249409. PMC 8009386. PMID 33784356.
  36. ^ Bai S, Guo W, Feng Y, Deng H, Li G, Nie H, et al. (January 2020). "Efficacy and safety of anti-inflammatory agents for the treatment of major depressive disorder: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials". Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery, and Psychiatry. 91 (1): 21–32. doi:10.1136/jnnp-2019-320912. PMID 31658959.
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  38. ^ Fitton R, Sweetman J, Heseltine-Carp W, van der Feltz-Cornelis C (December 2022). "Anti-inflammatory medications for the treatment of mental disorders: A scoping review". Brain, Behavior, & Immunity - Health. 26 100518. doi:10.1016/j.bbih.2022.100518. PMC 9547233. PMID 36217374.
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  43. ^ Khosravi MA, Seifert R (May 2024). "Clinical trials on curcumin in relation to its bioavailability and effect on malignant diseases: critical analysis". Naunyn-Schmiedeberg's Archives of Pharmacology. 397 (5): 3477–3491. doi:10.1007/s00210-023-02825-7. PMC 11074217. PMID 37966571.
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